enjoined to use only the book of common prayer, prepared by the primate Cranmer and his brethren, which, after various alterations in the reigns of Elizabeth, James I., and Charles II., continues in use in the Anglican church to this day. The English clergy were emancipated from compulsory celibacy, though it was recommended to them "to live separate from the bond of marriage, for their own estimation, and that they might attend solely to the ministration of the gospel." There were as yet no Protestant nonconformists, but all persons were commanded to attend public worship under pain of ecclesiastical censures, of 6 months' imprisonment for the first offence, 12 for the second, and confinement for life for the third. Bonner, bishop of London, Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, and several others, were deprived of their sees because they could not keep pace with the reformatory movement. The first step toward religious liberty was a distinction, recognized practically though not by canon, between what were supposed to be the essential and the unessential parts of Christianity, and only offences against the former were liable to deadly persecution. Thus, no Roman Catholic suffered death for religion in this reign; but Joan Bocher, commonly called Joan of Kent, was burned for an unintelligible heresy, which denied something, though her words vainly struggled to explain what, concerning Christ. Von Parris, a Dutchman, was also burned for denying the divinity of the Saviour. Among civil occurrences in this reign, the first of importance, after the settlement of the government, was the expedition of Somerset into Scotland to compel the marriage of Mary, the young queen of Scots, to Edward, according to a previous treaty. A bloody encounter, begun between the Scottish and English cavalry at Falside, Sept. 9, 1547, was continued the next day between the entire armies at Pinkie, and ended in the victory of the English protector. He was, however, quickly called home by machinations against him, the young queen of Scots was sent to France, and the war was ended without having effected its object. His brother and rival, Lord Seymour, was committed to the tower, Feb. 25, 1549, and a bill attainting him was brought into the house of lords. This bill was, by the influence of Somerset, who was present in the house to encourage it, passed unanimously within 3 days; and Seymour, without having had an opportunity to defend himself or confront his accusers, was beheaded on Tower hill, March 20. During the next summer formidable insurrections broke out in various parts of the kingdom. The depreciation of the currency during the last reign had been followed by an advance in the price of commodities; at the same time the demand for labor had been lessened and its wages reduced. The new owners of abbey lands had enclosed many of the fields which had formerly been allotted for the common use of the poor inhabitants, and their rapacity was compared with the indulgence of the monks, who had often been the most lenient of

landlords. There were armies of insurgents in several counties, but the largest and most violent was in Cornwall, where a tanner named Kett encamped near Norwich at the head of 20,000 men. He repulsed the marquis of Northampton, but was at length defeated and hanged with his principal associates. The protector had incurred odium by what was termed his feeble administration during this rebellion, and also by his lavish expenditures upon his magnificent palace of Somerset house. He had wavered and almost given sanction to the demands of the populace when they were in arms against the royal authority; and had become from a simple knight with a slender fortune the possessor of more than 200 manors and parcels of land in different parts of the kingdom. The discontented lords, directed by Dudley, earl of Warwick, gradually withdrew from court and met in London with bodies of their retainers. The protector, as soon as he received intelligence of their movement, took the king with him to Windsor, and called by proclamation on all faithful subjects to repair to him at Hampton court in arms for the protection of the royal person against a conspiracy. Multitudes of the common people, but scarcely a gentleman, obeyed his summons, and his cause was rendered desperate when the council declared against him. The king was obliged to sanction the vote for his deposition, and he was brought to London and incarcerated in the tower, Oct. 14, 1549. Warwick dissembled for the moment his purpose concerning the prisoner, and was obliged by his position, though a secret Catholic, to favor the cause of the reformation, and, though a rancorous enemy of Somerset, soon to set that nobleman free, and to give his own son in marriage to Somerset's daughter. When, however, Warwick had received the office of lord high admiral, had been raised to the dignity of duke of Northumberland, had become the undisputed chief of the government, and had annihilated the power of Somerset, he was able to proceed further against that duke, who was again committed to the tower in 1551 for treason and for felony, was convicted upon the latter charge, and executed upon Tower hill, Jan. 22, 1552. Warwick next persuaded Edward to make a new settlement excluding his sisters from the succession to the throne, and giving the fatal nomination to Lady Jane Grey, who had been his playmate and companion in studies. Edward sank rapidly after this, and died in the 16th year of his age and the 7th of his reign. His accomplishments were such as to surprise the famous Italian physician Jerome Cardan, who visited him in his last sickness; and for his diary and other compositions he is included by Walpole in his list of royal authors. The literary remains of Edward VI., edited with historical notices and a biographical memoir by John Gough Nichols, were printed in 1859, for the Roxburgh club (2 vols., London).

EDWARD, prince of Wales, surnamed the Black Prince, from the color of his armor, eldest son of Edward III. and Philippa of Hainaut,

born at Woodstock, June 15, 1330, died June 8, 1376. In his 16th year he accompanied his father in his invasion of France, and he held the nominal command of the largest and most actively engaged division of the English forces in the batte of Crécy, the king giving him this opportunity to "win his spurs." Among the slain in the battle was John of Luxemburg, king of Bohemia, and his crest of 3 ostrich feathers, with the motto Ich dien (I serve), was adopted by the prince of Wales, and has always been borne by his successors. In 1356 he gained the victory of Poitiers, in which the French King John was taken prisoner. He returned to England in 1357, the king of France on a splendidly caparisoned charger forming the principal ornament of the cavalcade with which he entered London. In 1361 the king of England united all his dominions between the Loire and the Pyrénées into one principality, and bestowed it upon the Black Prince, with the title of prince of Aquitania. There Pedro the Cruel took refuge from Castile, and young Edward undertook to replace him on his throne. He marched through the valley of Roncesvalles and by Pamplona to the frontiers of Castile, met and defeated Henry of Trastamare on the plains between Navarrete and Najera, was disappointed of the reimbursements which had been stipulated, and returned into Guienne with an exhausted treasury and a shattered constitution. To defray the expenses of his court, perhaps the most magnificent in Europe, and to fulfil his contracts with the troops that had followed him to Spain, he was obliged to impose taxes which made him unpopular with his barons. Summoned in 1869 to answer before King Charles of France to the complaints of his vassals, he replied that he would obey, but at the head of 60,000 men. He appeared in the field, but the French generals avoided an engagement and garrisoned their strong places. He laid siege to Limoges, captured it and reduced it to ashes, and massacred the inhabitants. This was the close of his military career, and by the advice of his physicians he returned to England, where he lingered for 6 years. The Black Prince is portrayed by contemporary writers as the mirror of knighthood and the most heroic of princes. He was married to his cousin Joan, countess of Kent, famed for her beauty, by whom he left one son, Richard, who succeeded Edward III. on the throne of England.

EDWARDES, LIEUT. COL. HERBERT BENJAMIN, C. B., an English soldier, born in Frodesley, Shropshire, in Jan. 1820, where his father was rector of the parish. He studied at King's college, London, and having been nominated to a cadetship in the East India company's service, set sail for Calcutta, where he arrived in Jan. 1840, and was immediately attached to the 1st European regiment. In 1845 he was appointed aide-de-camp to the commander-in-chief, Sir Hugh Gough; he was wounded at the battle of Moodkee, Dec. 18; was actively engaged in the victory of Sobraon, Feb. 10, 1846; was

appointed 3d assistant to the commissioners of the Trans-Sutlej territory a few weeks later; and in Jan. 1847, was made first assistant to Sir Henry Lawrence, the resident at Lahore, and was charged with collecting the revenue in the N. W. part of the Punjaub. The skill with which he performed this difficult duty, and, without resort to military measures, reduced the lawless tribes of that half subjugated country, at once drew the attention of the Indian authorities toward the young lieutenant; and his conduct in the troubles which followed with the Sikh chieftain Lalla Moolraj soon made his name familiar in every part of England. In April, 1848, Moolraj stirred up a rebellion of the Sikhs, fortified himself at Mooltan, and, aided by the native garrison of a small fort near there, murdered Lieut. Anderson of the Bombay fusileers and Mr. Vans Agnew of the Bengal civil service. At this critical period it was probably the courage and military knowledge of Lieut. Edwardes which saved the British power in the Punjaub. Leaving the town of Leia on the Indus, where he had been employed with a small force in collecting the land tax, he summoned Col. Cortlandt, commanding at Dera Ismail Khan, to come to his assistance, called upon the friendly nabob of Bahawalpoor to take the field, and having effected a junction with Cortlandt, May 20, moved down the W. bank of the Indus at the head of 7,000 men. At the same time 10,000 of the enemy who had marched out to oppose his passage were compelled by the demonstrations of the Bahawalpoor troops to retreat toward the Chenaub, whither Edwardes, having crossed the Indus on the 17th with a small body of infantry, hastened to attack them, leaving Cortlandt to follow as soon as boats could be got for the passage of the rest. Meanwhile Moolraj had defeated the nabob of Bahawalpoor, and Edwardes on reaching the scene of action had to withstand the onset of the whole Sikh army, 12,000 strong, including horse and artillery. After a hard-fought battle, memorable for a gallant charge of the mounted British officers upon the Sikh front, the insurgents were routed by the opportune arrival of Col. Cortlandt, and made their way to Mooltan. In the subsequent siege of that city and its assault after the arrival of Gen. Whish from Lahore, the heroic young officer gained new laurels, but lost his right hand by the accidental discharge of a pistol. For his services he received the local rank of major in the Lahore territories, the East India company voted him an annuity of £100, the court of directors caused a gold medal to be struck in his honor, and he was raised by successive promotions to the rank of lieutenantcolonel. At the end of the war he visited England, was married, was created by special statute an extra member of the companions of the order of the bath, Oct. 20, 1849, published his "Year on the Punjaub Frontier" (2 vols. 8vo., London, 1851), and in 1851 returned to India, where he was appointed commissioner and superintendent at Peshawer, an office which he still holds. After

the disarming of the troops at this station during the sepoy revolt of 1857-'8, he organized an effective force among the Afghan mountaineers of the frontiers, and was mainly instrumental in preserving the comparative tranquillity of that part of India throughout the rebellion.

EDWARDS, a S. E. co. of Ill., drained to a small extent by the Little Wabash river; area, 200 sq. m.; pop. in 1855, 4,598. Bon Pas creek flows along its E. border, and the Wabash touches it on the S. E. The surface is occupied by forests and fertile undulating prairies. In 1850 the productions were 227,035 bushels of Indian corn, 36,412 of oats, and 1,502 tons of hay. There were 11 churches, and 1,054 pupils attending public schools. The county was named in honor of Ninian Edwards, governor of Illinois territory. Capital, Albion.

EDWARDS, BELA BATES, D.D., an American author, professor in the Andover theological seminary, born in Southampton, Mass., July 4, 1802, died in Georgia, April 20, 1852. He was graduated at Amherst college in 1824, entered the seminary at Andover in 1825, in 1826 was appointed tutor at Amherst, in 1828 was chosen assistant secretary of the American education society, and performed the duties of this office till 1833. His literary and editorial labors were very great and important. From 1828 to 1842 he edited the "American Quarterly Register," which, up to the first date, had borne the name of the "Quarterly Journal of the American Education Society." In 1833 he established the "American Quarterly Observer," which, after 8 volumes, was united with the "Biblical Repository" of Prof. Robinson, which he edited from 1835 to 1838. Of the "Bibliotheca Sacra" he was the editor from 1844 to 1852. In 1837 he was appointed professor of Hebrew in the semi nary at Andover; and in 1848 successor to Prof. Stuart in the chair of biblical literature, which office he held till his death. For 23 years he superintended an important part of our periodical literature, and, with the aid of others, produced 31 octavo volumes, monuments of his industry, learning, taste, and talents. He also prepared the "Eclectic Reader," "Biography of Self-taught Men," and the "Missionary Gazetteer." A selection of his sermons, lectures, and addresses, with a memoir by Prof. Park (2 vols. 12mo.), was published in Boston in 1853.

EDWARDS, BRYAN, an English historian, born in Westbury, Wiltshire, May 21, 1743, died July 15, 1800. After acquiring a good English education at Bristol, he emigrated to Jamaica in 1759, where a rich uncle gave him the means of completing his studies, and finally made him his heir. He became a prominent member of the colonial assembly, and published in 1784 a pamphlet against the restrictions laid by government on the trade between the West Indies and the United States. He afterward went to St. Domingo, and collected materials for his "Historical Survey of the French Colony" in that island, which was published in 4to. (London, 1797), and was subsequently incorporated in the author's

best known work, the "History, Civil and Commercial, of the British Colonies in the West Indies" (3 vols. 4to., London, 1793-1801). This work bears a high character, and gives very minute and varied information. It was reprinted in Philadelphia in 4 vols. 8vo. (1805–’6). A 5th edition, with a continuation to 1796, was published in 5 vols. 8vo. (London, 1819). Mr. Edwards returned to England, took up his residence at Polygon, near Southampton, and from 1796 till his death represented the borough of Grampound in parliament.

EDWARDS, GEORGE, "the father of ornithologists," born in Stratford, Essex, Eng., April 3, 1694, died July 23, 1773. He was brought up to trade, but his tastes being developed by the perusal of works on natural history and antiquities, at the close of his apprenticeship he travelled abroad, visiting Holland, Norway, and other parts of Europe, in prosecuting his favorite researches. The fruit of his labors appeared in his "Natural History of uncommon Birds, and of some rare and undescribed Animals" (4 vols. 4to., London, 1743, '47, '50, and '51); to which 3 more volumes were added in 1758, '60, and '64, called "Gleanings of Natural History." This exceedingly valuable work contained numerous plates, with descriptions in French and English of over 600 subjects; in its original form it is very scarce, but several partial editions, abridgments, &c., have been published. Mr. Edwards left a work entitled "Elements of Fossilology," which appeared in 1776.

EDWARDS, JOHN, D.D., a divine of the church of England, born in Hertford, Feb. 26, 1637, died in Cambridge, April 16, 1716. He was graduated at Cambridge in 1661, and soon afterward took charge of Trinity church in Cambridge, thence removed successively to Bury St. Edmund's, to Colchester, and back again to Cambridge. In 1699 he was made doctor of divinity; and from this time he became a voluminous writer, showing himself a subtle and able polemic, and thoroughly versed in ecclesiastical history. He was so decided a Calvinist that he has been called "the Paul, the Augustine, the Bradwardine, and the Calvin of his age;" and such was his abhorrence of Arminianism that he contended, with the old Puritans, that it was closely connected with popery. His published works were very numerous, and they evince extensive learning, deep thought, cogent reasoning, and extraordinary zeal for what are known as the doctrines of grace. The most important of his works are "Veritas Redux, or Evangelical Truths Restored;" "Inquiry into four remarkable Texts;" "Discourse concerning the Authority, Style, and Perfection of the Books of the Old and New Testaments;" "Survey of the several Dispensations of Religion;" "Answer to Dr. Whitby's Five Points;" "Animadversions on Dr. Clarke's Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity;" "Theologia Reformata: the Body and Substance of the Christian Religion;" several treatises against the Socinians, and a vast number of smaller treatises, pamphlets. &c.

EDWARDS, JONATHAN, an American divine and metaphysician, born at East Windsor, in the colony of Connecticut, Oct. 5, 1703, died at Princeton, N. J., March 22, 1758. He was the first of the sons of Connecticut, the greatest theologian of his century, and the ablest metaphysician of the period between Leibnitz and Kant. Thomas Chalmers of Scotland gave him the palm over Hume, and added: "On the arena of metaphysics Jonathan Edwards stood the highest of all his contemporaries. The American divine affords, perhaps, the most wondrous example in modern times of one who stood gifted both in natural and in spiritual discernment." Sir James Mackintosh says: 66 'This remarkable man, the metaphysician of America, was formed among the Calvinists of New England. His power of subtile argument, perhaps unmatched, certainly unsurpassed among men, was joined with a character which raised his piety to fervor. That most extraordinary man in a metaphysical age or country would certainly have been deemed as much the boast of America as his great countryman, Franklin." Robert Hall's testimony is: "Jonathan Edwards ranks with the brightest luminaries of the Christian church, not excluding any country or any age." Dugald Stewart says: One metaphysician of America, in logical acuteness and subtilty, does not yield to any disputant bred in the universities of Europe." He was an only son, with 10 sisters, 4 of whom were older than himself. His own father and his mother's father were eminent ministers; he sprung directly from John Warham, the west of England minister who reached America a week or two before Winthrop, settled first in Dorchester, and then with a part of his flock removed to Windsor. The father of young Edwards was distinguished in his day for his knowledge of Hebrew, Greek, and Latin; his mother was a woman of an excellent mind, well cultivated, fond of reading, and of ardent piety. He was trained by his father and his elder sisters for college and to habits of careful study and analysis. The community in which he lived was "remarkably favored by revivals of religion;" and before he was 10 he was much "concerned for his soul's salvation," abounded in religious duties, prayed five times a day in secret, joined with some of his schoolmates to build a booth in a sequestered spot for prayer, and himself had retiring places of his own among the woods. But the boy did not obtain peace of mind; his childhood was troubled "with many exercising thoughts and inward struggles;" and the doctrine of God's sovereignty in choosing whom he would to eternal life and rejecting whom he pleased, used to appear to him like a horrible doctrine. At 10 years old he wrote a paper ridiculing the idea that the soul is material. At 12 he described in a letter to an absent sister "a very remarkable outpouring of the spirit of God" in his native place. "It still continues," he says, "but I have reason to think it is in some measure diminished; yet I hope not much. Three have joined the church

since you last heard; five now stand propounded for admission; and I think above 30 persons come commonly a Mondays to converse with father about the condition of their souls." To the power of analysis, Edwards, like "the great master of those who know," il maestro di color che sanno, added the power of observation; and when 12 years old, he sent to a European correspondent of his father an account "of the wondrous way of the working of the spider" in the forest, whose habits he had watched, as it seemingly "tacked its almost imperceptible web to the vault of the heavens," and, swayed by the west wind, moved through the air toward the ocean. With proper opportunities he would like Aristotle have become a great natural philosopher. In Sept. 1716, he entered Yale college. His fellow collegians, only 30 in number, dwelt not together, but scattered in clusters among several villages; Edwards for the most part at Wethersfield. He gained a good name for "his carriage and his learning;" but in his scanty opportunities the range of his learning was very limited. He knew little of classic literature; the best impulse to his mind was given by Locke's "Essay on the Human Understanding," which he read with "a far higher pleasure than the most greedy miser finds, when gathering up handfuls of silver and gold from some newly discovered treasure." But he was quickened, not subdued or mastered, by Locke's system, of which the perusal only roused his own faculties to speculative activity and creative reflection. His nature was inclined to that system which in Europe had found its representatives in Malebranche and Leibnitz; and in some way or other, probably from citations, something of Plato's theory of ideas, and something of the doctrine of Cudworth's "Intellectual System," infused themselves into his youthful reflections. At this early period, when about 15, he, in opposition to Locke, denied the possibility of adding to matter the property of thought; and held that "every thing did exist from all eternity in uncreated idea;" that "spirit or mind is consciousness and what is included in consciousness;" that "truth is the agreement of our ideas with the ideas of God;" that "nothing has a proper being but spirit;" that "matter is merely ideal;" that "the objects of the external senses are but the shadows of being;" that "the universe exists nowhere but in the divine mind." His speculations have sometimes a startling resemblance to those of Spinoza. The latter names thought and extension as the attributes of God, and ascribes being to God alone; Edwards, the collegian, to whom God was Intelligence itself, wrote also that "space is God." In one of his latest works he says of God: "He is all and alone;""the infinite, universal, all-comprehending entity." In his youth, at 15 or 16, he said: "God and real existence are the same; God is, and there is none else." Spinoza retained till he was past 40 the so-called Arminian theory of the will, and did not adopt that which harmonizes

with Calvinism till he had separated from the school of Descartes. Voltaire in his early manhood taught Madame du Châtelet the Arminian view, though after 40 years of further experience and reflection he asserted the other theory, confessing candidly of himself: "The ignorant philosopher who thus reasons now, has not always been of this way of thinking." But Edwards, while a collegian of 15 or 16, argued out for himself his theory of the will; and his theory of virtue was also fully formed and declared and written down in words. One thing more was wanting to shape his course. He counted himself still among the unregenerate; but after an illness in his last year in college, when not yet 17, how or by what means he could never tell, "his past convictions" were overcome, and he had no more doubts of "God's absolute sovereignty and justice with respect to salvation and damnation." Now he had found the purpose of his life; his speculative opinions and his religious faith were unalterably formed. He had no less than Locke a disposition to show the harmony between reason and religion, the faculties of man and the dogmas of the true faith; but from the first he repelled the materialist philosophy; and while he never came forward as the express combatant of Locke, it became from his early youth the object of his earthly career to combat the results of Locke's philosophy in its application to the sources of knowledge, the science of morals, and theology. From this moment God's absolute sovereignty became to him a delightful conviction; the doctrine exceedingly pleasant and bright. As he read of the King eternal, immortal, and invisible, a new sense of the glory of the Divine Being was diffused through his soul. He longed to be rapt up to him in heaven. He read and meditated on the beauty and excellency of the person of Christ and the loveliness of salvation by his free grace in the soul. In a calm abstraction from the concerns of this world, he yearned to be in the mountains far from mankind, conversing with Christ. His sense of divine things would often of a sudden kindle up "a sweet burning in his heart." He gave an account of his experience to his father, and became a member of the visible church. Now, as he walked in a solitary place in his father's pasture, he saw the glorious majesty and grace of God in conjunction; gentle majesty, majestic meekness; a high and great and holy gentleness. To him "the appearance of every thing was altered; there was, as it were, a calm, sweet cast or appearance of divine glory in almost every thing. God's excellency, his wisdom, his purity and love, seemed to appear in the sun, moon, and stars; in the clouds and blue sky; in the grass, flowers, trees; in the water and in all nature." He often used to sit and gaze at the moon for a long time; and in the day spent much time in viewing the clouds and sky, to behold in them the sweet glory of God; singing forth with a low voice his contemplations of the Creator and Redeemer. He would

watch the thunderstorm, and while thus engaged, or when walking alone in solitary places for converse with God, it always seemed natural for him to chant forth his meditations, or to speak his thoughts in soliloquies with a singing voice. He was satisfied of his good estate, but he longed so vehemently for more holiness, that his soul was breaking for its longing. Prayer was as natural to him as the breath which relieved his inward burnings. With soul-animating and refreshing delight, he saw the divine excellence of the things of God, and tasted their soul-satisfying and life-giving good.-For two years after he took his degree he remained in New Haven as a student for the ministry; and in Aug. 1722, before he was 19 years of age, he was selected to uphold, as a preacher, the cause of Calvinism in a Presbyterian church in the city of New York. Here he remained 8 months, increasing all the time in his sense of divine things. Heaven appeared to him as a world of love; holiness as ravishingly lovely— a divine beauty, of a charming serene nature, bringing purity, brightness, and peace. He would retire into a solitary place on the banks of the Hudson river for contemplation of divine things, hanging a thought on every thorn. Life in the commercial city enlarged his sympathies, and on the arrival of a ship "his soul eagerly catched at any news favorable to the interest and advancement of Christ's kingdom." Here, on Jan. 12, 1723, he made anew a solemn dedication of himself to God. He remained in New York long enough to learn to love the place "where he had none other than sweet and pleasant days;" and when, in April, 1723, he returned home, his parting hour " was most bitter;" his heart seemed to sink within him, and as he sailed away he kept sight of the city as long as he could. At his father's house in East Windsor he continued his severe and unremitting studies, made with the pen in hand. Here, too, he finished a series of 70 resolutions, most of which he wrote in New York. He humbly entreated God by his grace to enable him to keep them all; to act always for the glory of God, for the good of mankind in general; to lose not one moment of time; to live with all his might while he did live; to let the knowledge of the failings of others only promote shame in himself; to solve as far as he could any theorem in divinity he might think of; to trace actions back to their original source; to be firmly faithful to his trust; to live as he would if it were but an hour before he should hear the last trump; to strive every week for a higher and yet higher exercise of grace; "to keep a benign aspect, and to let there be something of benevolence in all his speech." Abounding in spiritual and holy joys, the young "seraphic doctor" of Congregationalism cherished no hope like that of the exercise of holiness and

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a burning love to God." It was also a comfort to him to think of that state of fulness of joy where reigns heavenly, calm, and delightful love. "How sweetly," said he, "will mutual lovers