to be a work of Roman times, and was finished in the reign of Vespasian. In 1843 Mehemet Ali had it cleared of the rubbish which filled the interior, and it is now used as a cotton warehouse.

ESPALIER (Fr., from Lat. palus, a pole), a kind of trellis-work used in horticulture, on which to arrange the branches of fruit trees, so as to train them into a horizontal direction, and to expose them to the light and heat of the sun. It is employed in the United States whero it is desired to produce a great variety of fruits in small enclosures. The espalier is fastened to the walls or high fences of the garden, and dwarf pears and peaches are trained in this way. In England, apples, cherries, plums, and even gooseberries are thus trained, the espalier not being always fastened to the walls. In France and other parts of Europe the fastened espalier is principally used, and the peach and nectarine are raised on such frames. The espalier thus permanently secured possesses some advantages over the system of nailing the tree to the wall, which renders it more difficult to remove the insects that are apt to breed between the branches and the wall, and to wash and clean the trees. In American forcing houses, the peach is commonly trained on espaliers, so formed that the greatest amount of surface can be fairly exposed to the sun and air.-To train to espaliers, the fruit tree is selected when young, after the buds have made their first year's growth. The stem or trunk should be clean and straight. It is to be carefully planted in a properly prepared border, and headed down just before it begins to push out for growing. When the buds have pushed and grown 3 or 4 inches, it should receive a summer pruning. One shoot is trained perpendicularly, and the others are laid horizontally along the trellis bars, one or two each side of the stem, and about 9 inches apart. If the extremity of the leading shoot be pinched off, leaving about 15 inches, the summer-formed buds will push out in turn, and the lower ones upon it are to be trained out horizontally as they grow, at nearly equal distance apart. The extremities of these branches are to be shortened in again some time previous to the next spring's growth, and in midsummer the buds upon the leading shoots are to be all rubbed off, excepting the 8 uppermost; 2 of these are to be trained out horizontally, and the upper is to be the leader. By this repeated pruning and pinching, short stems are produced, and in due time the fruit-bearing buds will appear, which in the pear are of peculiar form, growing upon what are technically called fruit spurs, and in the peach and plum are distinguished by their fulness and roundness and other dissimilarities to leaf buds. Fan-training on espaliers is practised with the peach and nectarine especially, and sometimes with the apricot; this consists in training the branches so as to spread obliquely upward like the rays or sticks of a fan. With the pear and apple the horizontal mode is adopted. Many flowering shrubs can be trained

upon espaliers and trellises by careful attention, and any requisite form combining beauty and utility can be secured for ornamental purposes. The object in fruit culture, however, is to secure an abundance of fruit buds in confined limits, while affording sufficiency of light and sunshine. For this purpose no other plan seems so feasible as the espalier; but since the dwarfing of the pear on the quince stock has been practised, standard trees of dwarf dimensions, which can be planted near each other, and can be trained like shrubs or bushes, are preferred.

ESPARTERO, JOAQUIN BALDOMERO, duke of Vittoria, a Spanish soldier and statesman, born Feb. 27, 1792, in Granatula, province of Ciudad Real. He is the son of a wheelwright, received some instruction in his native village and in the neighboring town of Almagro, enlisted in 1808 as a common soldier, subsequently attended the military school at Cadiz, was made sub-lieutenant in 1814, engaged in 1815 in the war in Venezuela, attained in South America to the rank of general, and in 1824 was sent to Madrid as a bearer of despatches for the government. He returned to South America the next year only to witness the triumph of Bolivar and to be thrown into prison, from which he escaped after a few months' detention. After his arrival in Spain he displayed a large fortune, derived, it was said, from gambling in South America. In 1827 he married the beautiful daughter of a wealthy gentleman of Logroño. He was one of the first to declare himself in favor of the measure brought forward to secure the succession to the throne to Isabel II, and the regency during her minority to her mother, Queen Christina; and on the breaking out of civil war after King Ferdinand's death (Sept. 29, 1833), he took a conspicuous part against the Carlists, became commander-inchief of the province of Biscay (Jan. 1, 1834), and soon after field-marshal and lieutenantgeneral of the royal forces (June 20, 1835). Although not always successful against the Carlists, he displayed more spirit and ability than any of his colleagues; and having protected Madrid against the insurgents (Aug. 1836), he was appointed general-in-chief of the army of the north, viceroy of Navarre, and in the following month captain-general of the Basque provinces. Soon afterward he drove the Carlists from the position of Luchana, and, assisted by the British fleet, raised the siege of Bilbao (Dec. 24, 1836), on which occasion he was created count of Luchana. In the mean time revolution was rife in Madrid, resulting in the proclamation of a new constitution, June 18, 1837, to which Espartero, as a member of the constituent cortes, gave his adherence. He forced the army of Don Carlos, which had advanced to the walls of Madrid (Sept. 12, 1837), to retreat, and drove it back across the Ebro. On April 27, 1838, he defeated near Burgos the army of the Carlist general Negri, and soon afterward near Penacerrada that of Gen. Guergue: and after gaining new and important

victories in May, 1839, he was created (June 1) a grandee of the first class with the title of duke of Vittoria and of Morella. Skilfully availing himself of the dissensions and calamities of the Carlists, and of his personal acquaintance with their general, Maroto (the successor of Guergue), who had been his companion in arms in South America, he succeeded in concluding a convention with him at Bergara (Aug. 29, 1839), by which 24 battalions of veteran Carlist troops acknowledged the supremacy of the queen. Don Carlos fled to France, the few troops that remained devoted to him were dispersed, and Cabrera himself, the most formidable Carlist leader after the death of Zumalacarreguy (1835), was at length overpowered by Espartero, and compelled to follow his master to France (July 6, 1840); and thus the war with the Carlists was at an end. But the strife of political parties, in which Espartero now took a more prominent part, continued to distract the country. A law interfering with the freedom of speech in the ayuntamientos or town councils, passed by the government and opposed by Espartero, became the signal for an insurrection. Espartero made a triumphant entry into Madrid and Valencia, whither he had been summoned by Christina, who proposed to place him at the head of a new administration. But in the course of a stormy interview with him, the queen suddenly determined to resign her office of regent (Oct. 10, 1840), and retired to France. Espartero became the chief of the government, and was confirmed in his position by a decision of the cortes (May 8, 1841), by which he was appointed regent of Spain during the remainder of the minority of Isabel. He resisted the encroachments of the holy see as well as those of the extreme republican party, quelled an insurrection in favor of Christina under O'Donnell, at Pamplona, defeated the attempts of Concha and Diego Leon to seize the young queen and to bribe the army, repressed the unruly spirit of the people in the Basque provinces, and, on Nov. 18, 1841, subdued Barcelona, the focus of the revolutionary politicians and the discontented industrial population. But within a year the country was again in open rebellion. A new and bloody conflict broke out at Barcelona. Espartero took the town (Dec. 1842) after a heavy bombardment. Violent outbreaks took place in many of the provinces. His refusal to grant an amnesty to political offenders who were partisans of Christina, and to dismiss some of his officers who had taken a conspicuous part in reducing the Barcelona insurgents, sealed the fate of his administration. His cabinet resigned. Revolution, promoted by the agents of Christina and supported by Concha, O'Donnell, and Narvaez, spread over the land. The junta of Barcelona declared the majority of Isabel (June 13, 1843), and deposed Espartero. Narvaez, putting himself at the head of the insurgents at Valencia, entered Madrid, July 22; and Espartero, deserted by all parties, was

received on board an English ship of war in the bay of Cadiz, July 30, whence he soon afterward set sail for England, arriving at Falmouth Aug. 19. He resided in London until Dec. 29, 1847, when he was recalled to Spain and created a senator. He took his seat in the senate, Jan. 13, 1848, but soon retired to Logroño, and took no part in the government until July 17, 1854, when an insurrection broke out, which again drove Christina and Narvaez from the country and replaced Espartero at the head of the government. His administration was marked by violent debates in the cortes on the political institutions of Spain, by the agitation of the question of the estates of the clergy, by a severe financial crisis, and by various other difficulties at home, while the Crimean war created some embarrassment in foreign relations. With a view of consolidating his government, he had appointed O'Donnell, the principal leader of Christina's party, minister of war, but this coalition could not last, and Espartero resigned in July, 1856. His resignation was followed by outbreaks in Madrid and other towns, in which Espartero, however, who has since lived in retirement, did not take any part.

ESPINASSE, ESPRIT CHARLES MARIE, a French general, born at Saissac, Aude, April 2, 1815, killed at Magenta, June 4, 1859. He served in early life in Algeria, assisted in the coup d'état of Dec. 2, 1851, and became an aide-de-camp of Napoleon III. In the RussoTurkish war he was at first unsuccessful in an expedition in the Dobrodja (1854), where he and his troops were prostrated by the cholera; but he distinguished himself in 1855 during the battle of the Tchernaya and the storming of the Malakoff, and was appointed general of division. His devotion to Napoleon and his uncompromising energy of character caused him to be made minister of the interior and of public safety, Feb. 8, 1858, Orsini's attempt upon the emperor's life being made a pretext for investing a soldier with the functions of a civilian. But dictatorial and unpolished, he could not maintain himself in his office. M. Delangle became his successor (June 14, 1858), while the general received a seat in the senate. He was among the first to join the army in Italy, and fell early in the battle of Magenta.

ESPINASSE, MLLE. DE L'. See LESPINASSE. ESPINEL, VICENTE, a Spanish poet, born in Ronda, Andalusia, about 1540, died in Madrid about 1630.

His father's name was Francisco Goma, but, according to a prevailing custom among the ancient Granadan nobility, he adopted the name of his maternal grandmother. The incidents of his life, like the dates of his birth and death, are surrounded with obscurity, but it is certain that he was educated at Salamanca, and that he led an adventurous life in various parts of Europe. In the latter part of his life he held an ecclesiastical office in his native town, though he passed much of his time in the capital. He was through the whole of his career more or less in pecuniary trouble,

and died in great poverty, although he was the recipient of a pension from the archbishop of Toledo. His restless and sarcastic disposition contributed not a little to aggravate his difficulties, and alienated from him Cervantes and others of his friends. He was prominent among the Spanish poets of the 16th and 17th centuries, and the first poetical productions of Lope de Vega were submitted to his criticism. Some of his canciones, redondillas, pastorals, and elegies are spirited, picturesque, and harmonious in versification. He was also proficient in music, composed the music for the funeral service on occasion of the death of Philip II., and is said to have added a 5th string to the guitar, which soon led to the invention of the 6th. But his chief work is his sprightly, amusing, and characteristic "Life of Marcos de Obregon" (Relaciones de la vida del escudero Marcos de Obregon), which first appeared at Barcelona in 1618, and has since passed through several editions in Spain, of which that of Madrid, 1804, is the last. An English translation was made by Algernon Langton (London, 1816). Tieck wrote an imitation in German. Voltaire accused Le Sage, who was no favorite with the sage of Ferney, of plagiarism in connection with this work, and denounced the "Gil Blas" as taken entirely from Espinel's "Marcos de Obregon."

ESPIRITO SANTO, a maritime province of Brazil, bounded N. by the province of Bahia, S. by Rio Janeiro, W. by Minas Geraes, and E. by the Atlantic; area, 23,000 sq. m.; pop. according to government returns published in 1856, 51,300, about being slaves; capital, Vittoria. It has a healthy climate and a rich but ill cultivated soil, watered by numerous rivers which rise among the Cordilleras and flow into the Atlantic. Canoes ascend these streams nearly to their sources, and coasting vessels, carrying on an export trade in rum, unrefined sugar, mandioca, flour, rice, maize, cotton, timber, dyestuffs, drugs, and salt fish, frequent the deep and safe harbors formed at their mouths. Along the coast are the islands called the Abrolhos. Opposite to them, on the river Caravellas, is the town of Caravellas, the most commercial town of the province, and containing a German colony. The interior, covered with mountains and dense forests, is peopled almost wholly by Indians. Among these are the Botocudos, noted for their bravery and cannibalism.

ESPRONCEDA, JOSÉ DE, a Spanish poet, born at Almendralejo, Estremadura, in 1808, died May 23, 1842. The liberal political sentiments of his early effusions caused him to be sent for some time into exile. While in France, he took part in the revolution of 1830. Under the administration of Espartero he received a diplomatic appointment at the Hague (1840). He devoted much attention to Byron's works, which he endeavored to imitate. His best poem, though unfinished, is his El Diablo Mundo, and his best novel is his Don Sancho Saldaña.' An

edition of his works without the Diablo Mundo was published in Madrid in 1840, and one including it in Paris in 1856.

ESQUIMAUX, a name given to a race who are the sole inhabitants of the shores of all the seas, bays, inlets, and islands of America N. of lat. 60° N., from the E. coast of Greenland to Behring's straits. Their habitations stretch along the Atlantic on the coast of Labrador to the straits of Belle Isle, and they are found on the Pacific as far as the peninsula of Aliaska, and even to some extent on the opposite coast of Asia. The entire length of coast under their control is computed at not less than 5,400 miles exclusive of inlets, and the language spoken throughout this great range is intrinsically the same. The name of Esquimaux is derived, according to Charlevoix, from the Algonquin word Eskimantick, which signifies "eaters of raw fish." Sir John Richardson, however, thinks it is of Canadian origin, and derived from the phrase Ceux qui miaux (miaulent), “Those who mew," referring to their peculiar shout as they surround trading vessels in their boats. He adds that the word is unknown to the Esquimaux, who invariably call themselves Inu-it, "the people." Crantz describes the Greenlanders, between whom and the other tribes of Esquimaux there are few points of difference, as a small but well proportioned, broad-shouldered people, generally less than 5 feet in height, with high cheek bones, flat faces, small lustreless black eyes, round cheeks, small but not flat noses, small round mouths, long, straight, coal-black hair, large heads and limbs, and small soft hands and feet. They root out the beard, and are inclined to corpulency. Their body is of a dark gray color, but the face brown or blue. This brown color seems not altogether natural, because their children are born as white as others, but is due in part to their habits; for they are constantly handling grease, and seldom wash themselves. Lesson describes them as superstitious to excess, and possessed of those vague religious sentiments which pervade all the northern tribes. Polygamy is practised, and women are regarded as creatures of an inferior order, to be disposed of by the men according to their pleasure. Their dwellings are almost invariably built near the sea-shore, and are either permanent or temporary according to the situation and the materials at the disposal of the workman. In Greenland, where their permanent dwelling is built of stone cemented by turf as a substitute for mortar, it is usually not more than 6 or 8 feet high, and is covered by a flat roof of wood and turf. It has neither door nor chimney, and the floor is divided into compartments by skins attached to the posts that support the roof. Each family has a separate apartment, and each apartment a window of seal skin dried, which is white and transparent. Benches are used as seats during the day and as couches during the night, the bedding being composed of reindeer skins. In Gilbert sound the houses are made of wood, and

at Regent's bay, according to Sir John Ross, the roof is arched, and the habitation sunk 3 feet in the ground, a description of house generally found among the Esquimaux of Labrador; but the most remarkable houses are those built of the bones of whales and walruses described by Sir Martin Frobisher and Sir Edward Parry. They also frequently construct dwellings of snow and ice. Both Dr. Kane and Dr. Rae, borrowing the suggestion from the natives of this high polar region, constructed dwellings of snow, which they found to be both useful and agreeable. The dress of the Esquimaux consists of furs, in the preparation of which they exercise a degree of ingenuity superior to that of the most skilful furrier. The winter coat is usually made of seal skin, while the summer coat consists of that of the reindeer; but every variety of fur is occasionally used. At Prince William's sound the natives wear skins of the sea otter, fox, raccoon, martin, seal, and water fowl. At Schismareff inlet those of the reindeer and dog are generally used, at Regent inlet those of the polar bear, and at Melville peninsula those of reindeer. The overcoat is supplied with a large hood, often bordered with white fur of the deer, which when drawn over the head presents a lively contrast with the dark face of the wearer. Those worn by the females have a much larger hood than those used by the males, which not only furnishes a covering for the head but a cradle for the infant. The boots of the females are remarkable, and are sometimes made so large in the leg as to resemble a leather sack, which gives a singular and ludicrous aspect to the whole figure. These capacious pouches are used as pockets, as temporary beds for infants, and, when in the vicinage of white men, as receptacles for stolen goods. As they are much upon the water, they devote considerable attention to the construction of their boats. These are of two kinds, the caiak or men's boat, and the oomiak or women's boat. The caiak, first described by Baffin, is adapted but for one person; it is about 16 feet long, 2 feet broad in the centre, and 1 foot deep, and bears a resemblance to the weaver's shuttle. The bottom is rounded and has no keel. The frame is kept stretched above by 22 little beams, and 2 strong battens run from stem to stern, which toward the centre are attached to a hoop of bone of sufficient size to admit the body. The frame is entirely covered, with the exception of a circular hole in the centre, with freshdressed seal or walrus skin. When complete the boat weighs about 60 pounds, and is so constructed that it can be carried on the head without the aid of the hands. The oomiak is from 20 to 25 feet long, 8 feet broad, and capable of accommodating from 10 to 20 persons. It is composed of the same materials as the caiak, and is often furnished with a lug-shaped sail, formed of the intestine of the walrus, sewed together with great skill in breadths of about 4 inches, and weighing less than 4 pounds. The mast has a neat ivory sheave for the halyards VOL. VII.-19

to run on, and is placed well forward. Much taste is displayed upon the bow and stern of the oomiak, but the Esquimaux chiefly prides himself upon the beauty and speed of his caiak, in which he defies the storm, and does not hesitate to approach and give battle to the polar bear and other monsters of these high northern seas. Next to his boat the Esquimaux attaches most importance to his sledge, which is drawn by dogs. It is sometimes constructed of wood, but bone sleds are almost exclusively used at Schismareff inlet and Regent's bay. At Regent's inlet the sled is made of a number of salmon packed together in the form of a cylinder about 7 feet long, encased in skins taken from canoes, and well corded with thongs; 2 of these cylinders are pressed into the shape of runners, and having been left to freeze, are secured by cross bars made of the legs of the deer or musk ox. The bottom of the runner is then covered with a mixture of moss, earth, and water, upon which is deposited about half an inch of water, which congeals in the act of application. These sleds travel more lightly than those shod with iron; but as they cease to be of service when the temperature rises above the freezing point, they are then taken to pieces, and the fish being eaten, the skins are converted into bags and the bones are given to the dogs. The Esquimaux hunt with bows and arrows, spears, and slings. They are fond of ornaments, and carve with much skill. Capt. Logan informs us that he found on the E. coast of America models of men, women, and children, of beasts, birds, and fishes, executed in a masterly style, and with no mean knowledge of anatomy. The ivory or walrus tusks of which they form their models are cut by continued chopping with a knife, one end of the ivory resting on a soft stone, which serves as a block. To smooth and polish the work when finished, a gritty stone is used as a file, and kept constantly wet with saliva. The impressions of Dr. Kane and Dr. Rae, the two most recent travellers among the Esquimaux, are somewhat at variance; while Dr. Kane had reason to doubt their good faith and to suspect them of treachery, Dr. Rae found them simple, well meaning, and trusty. Richardson represents them as scrupulously honest toward each other, but utterly regardless of the property rights of strangers. They subsist almost exclusively upon fish and animal food, which the rigor of the climate enables them to eat raw, and in large quantities. Fat of animals and fish oil constitute their chief delicacies. Mr. John Simpson, who was physician of the ship Plover, Com. Maguire, which wintered twice at Point Barrow (1852 and 1854), wrote "Observations on the Western Esquimaux and the country they inhabit," which are contained in the "Further Papers relative to the recent Arctic Expedition in search of Sir John Franklin," presented to the English parliament in 1855. He states that their principal settlements at Point Barrow, Cape Smyth, Point Hope, and Cape Prince of Wales, are inhabited during the whole year;

but Wainwright inlet, Icy cape, Port Clarence, and Norton sound, the coasts of Kotzebue sound, and other settlements and huts along the coast, are only inhabited during the winter and deserted in summer. Their commercial places are King-ing on Cape Prince of Wales, Sesua-ling at the mouth of the Nu-na-tak, Niga-lek at that of the river Cobrille, and Nu-wuak on Point Barter. Four or five Asiatic boats are engaged in the trade, and land their freight at Sesua-ling, where a species of fair is held toward the end of July, which is distinguished not only for its active commercial but also for its pleasant social character. Dealers who reside on the shores of the Nu-na-tak take the most active part in the business, and distribute the merchandise among the people of the interior. They either forward them or bring them annually in ships to the river Colville, where they meet their friends from Point Barrow. In the beginning of August the goods are taken from thence to Point Barter, where they are bartered for English and other products. According to Mr. Simpson, Sir John Franklin was mistaken in his belief that a Russian settlement existed on the Colville river, and that the Russian settlers were called Nu-na-tang-menn, this being the name applied by the Esquimaux to the dealers from the Nu-na-tak, who are the factors of the Russian implements and wares which are found along the N. coast.-It is a question with what portion of the human family the Esquimaux are to be classified. Most ethnologists have classed them with the Mongolians; both Mr. Gallatin and Mr. Duponceau, however, give to them the same origin as that of the hunting tribes of North American Indians, an opinion in which Dr. Prichard entirely coincides. Mr. Gallatin says that "there does not seem to be any solid foundation for the opinion of those who would ascribe to the Esquimaux an origin different from that of the North American Indians. The color and features are essentially the same, and the differences which exist, particularly in stature, may be easily accounted for by the rigor of climate, and partly perhaps by the nature of their food."-See "Synopsis of the Indian Tribes of North America," by Albert Gallatin, in Archæologia Americana, vol. ii. (Worcester, 1836), and the narratives of Franklin and the other arctic explorers.

ESQUIRE, or SQUIRE (Lat. scutifer; old Fr. escuier, a shield-bearer), originally a warrior armed with shield and javelin. Under the later Roman emperors the name was applied to soldiers of the most approved valor, to whom especially was assigned the defence of the palace and person of the emperor. The name was adopted in France, from the earliest period of the monarchy, to designate those holding the first rank in the army, whose bravery was rewarded with free grants of land, and who were styled gentlemen or nobles. By degrees the quality of nobility was distinguished from that of esquire, and a person ennobled for civil services could not take the latter title,

which could be gained only in the profession of arms. In the ages of chivalry the office of esquire followed that of valet, or page, and was the last degree of apprenticeship before attaining the honor of knighthood. (See CHIVALRY.) Esquires were attached to the courts of great lords and to the persons of knights, and were divided into various classes according to the offices which they performed. The esquire of the person acompanied his master almost everywhere, carried his helmet, armor, shield, gauntlets, and banner, held the stirrup when he mounted, armed him at the moment of combat, gave the martial cry as he entered battle, and supported him if he was overthrown in the fight. The esquire of honor did the honors of the castle, made preparations for festive assemblies, conducted guests to their chambers, and dressed and undressed his master. In war he kept guard over the prisoners taken by his master. The esquire of the chamber, or chamberlain, had charge of the gold and silver, especially of the plate for the table service. These 3 esquires were treated with confidence and familiarity, and were permitted to approach their master or mistress at any time. The esquire trenchant always stood at the repasts, and his office was to carve the meats and distribute them to the guests. The esquire of the stable was an important officer, his duty being not only to take charge of the horses, but also to keep the arms of the knight in good condition, and to guard against any defect which might be dangerous or fatal to his master in battle. Esquires of all classes were devoted to learning the arts and skill of their master, expecting, usually not before 7 years of service, their elevation to the dignity of knighthood, with the right to assume golden spurs. After the decline of chivalry the title of esquire remained in France attached to various offices. The office of grand esquire or equerry was one of the most considerable in the kingdom, with extensive prerogatives, and the disposal of numerous smaller offices, such as the esquires of the stables. Upon the entrance of the king into cities, he marched immediately before him, carrying the royal sword. Upon the death of the king the horses and harnesses of the royal stable became his property. This office and those dependent upon it were suppressed at the revolution, were revived under the empire and the restoration, again disappeared in 1830, and some of them have been reëstablished by Napoleon III. In England the title of esquire belongs by right of birth to the sons of younger sons of dukes and marquises; to all the sons of earls, viscounts, and barons; to the eldest sons of baronets and of knights of all the orders. The title is also given to the officers of the king's court and household; to the officers of the army and navy down to the captain inclusive; to doctors of law, barristers, physicians, justices of the peace while in commission, and the sheriffs of counties for life. The heads of many old families are also