and styled "the Confessor" about a century after his decease. The most commendable feature of his government was his attention to the administration of justice, and to collecting the laws of the realm. His compilation is lost.

EDWARD I. (of the Norman line), king of England, surnamed Long Shanks, from the excessive length of his legs, son of Henry III. and of Eleanor of Provence, born in Westminster, June 16, 1239, crowned Aug. 19, 1274, died July 7, 1307. Being invested with the duchy of Guienne, his right to that province was disputed by Alfonso X., king of Castile, who, however, renounced his claim in consequence of Edward's marrying his sister. In 1254 he received the lordship of Ireland and of the provinces which had been seized in the reign of John Lackland by the king of France. He supported the throne against the revolted barons, and was with his brother Richard I. made prisoner at the battle of Lewes in 1264. He recovered his liberty in 1265, defeated and slew Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, at Evesham, and in 1267 conquered the last of the insurgents in the isle of Ely. He now joined the crusaders, and served 2 years in the East. Nearly 2 years after his father's death, he was crowned without opposition at Westminster, and began to signalize his ability both as a warrior and legislator, His arms were first directed against Llewellyn, prince of the Welsh, whom he reduced, but who rebelled again, and was slain in single combat by an English knight immediately after the army of Edward reappeared in that country. It is said that Edward caused the massacre of all the bards of Wales, for fear that their songs should revive the patriotism of their countrymen; but this story may have been invented in view of the strict censorship which he exercised over the national poetry. He established corporate bodies of merchants in the principal towns of Wales, and introduced the jurisprudence of the English courts. In the castle of Caernarvon his queen Eleanor was delivered of her son Edward; the natives claimed the child as their countryman, and he was declared prince of Wales, a title which has since always been borne by the eldest son of the sovereign. In 1289 he resolved upon the subjugation of Scotland, to the crown of which there were at this time 13 claimants. Being invited to the office of arbitrator, he first took possession of many of the Scotch fortresses, and then conferred the crown upon John Baliol, who soon renounced his allegiance. Edward marched again across the Tweed, gained a great victory at Dunbar in 1296, sent Baliol into exile in Normandy, bore away the Scotch sceptre and crown, and left the highest offices of government in the hands of Englishmen, under the earl of Surrey, who received the title of guardian of the kingdom. The Scots rallied in 1297 under the chieftain William Wallace, and drove the English out of their kingdom, totally defeating them in the battle of Stirling, Sept. 11. Edward hastily finished the war which he had in the mean time

undertaken in France, advanced again to the Forth, and defeated the insurgents with the loss of from 20,000 to 40,000 men near the forest of Falkirk, July 22, 1298. Wallace himself escaped. The rebellion again broke out in 1303, and again Edward overran the kingdom, its temporary subjugation being completed by the surrender of the strong castle of Stirling in 1305. Wallace was soon after surprised and captured, and was hanged in Smithfield. In 1306 the war was again kindled by Robert Bruce, who was elected king, and though at first unsuccessful, at length gained a decisive victory over the earl of Pembroke. Edward, now enfeebled by age and disease, marched again to the north with the purpose of rendering Scottish rebellion from that time impossible; but he was surprised by death on the frontier at Burgh-upon-Sands. The most enduring results of the reign of Edward were the reforms which he introduced in the administration of government, of justice, and of the finances, which have gained for him the title of the "English Justinian." He ameliorated the laws, confirmed and finally established the two great charters, gave to the parliament the form which it has since retained, and is said to have first instituted justices of the peace. The Jews, who during the whole period of his reign were objects of the bitterest hatred to the great mass of the people, were cruelly despoiled, and in 1290 ordered under penalty of death to quit England for ever before a certain day.

EDWARD II., king of England, son and successor of the preceding, born in Caernarvon, April 25, 1284, ascended the throne in 1307, murdered Sept. 27, 1327. He was of an irresolute character and dissipated habits. From his childhood he had lived in close intimacy with Piers de Gaveston, the son of a gentleman of Guienne, who had at length been banished from the kingdom as a corrupter of the prince. Edward I. on his deathbed forbade his son under pain of his paternal malediction to allow the vicious favorite to return into England; yet the first act of the new king was the recall of Gaveston, whom he created earl of Cornwall and married to his own niece, and to the scandal of the whole kingdom appointed him regent while he himself went to France to marry the princess Isabella. A formidable league under the earl of Lancaster forced Gaveston into exile; but instead of being disgraced, he was appointed lieutenant of Ireland, and accompanied for some distance on his way by his royal friend. He returned soon after, when an army raised by confederate powerful barons and commanded by the earl of Lancaster pursued him to the north; he was besieged and captured at Scarborough, and, without any pretence of a legal process, was executed. Edward, at first threatening vengeance against all who had taken a part in the death of his favorite, seemed soon to forget his friendship and his hatred, and turned his attention to the revolted Scots. At the head of an immense army he crossed the frontier, but after losing the battle of Bannock

burn fled from the kingdom with a body of Scottish cavalry at his heels. In 1321 he was again defeated at Blackmoor, and pursued even to the walls of York. The public discontent was increased by the honors bestowed upon Hugh Spenser, a new favorite, and an armed insurrection of the barons under the earls of Lancaster and Hereford caused the Spensers to be banished; but on their return Lancaster was seized and put to death with the same indignities which had formerly by his orders been exercised against Gaveston. Edward, now at peace with his own subjects, hoped to secure his tranquillity by negotiating in 1323 a truce for 13 years with Scotland. Though the triumph of the Spensers was complete, the partiality with which the king regarded his favorites had the effect of alienating not only his subjects but also his queen. Under pretence of arranging some differences between her husband and her brother she went to France, where she found a great number of English fugitives, the friends of Lancaster, the most considerable and potent of whom was the young Roger Mortimer. A domestic rebellion supported by a foreign invasion was projected, and in 1326 the queen with a foreign force of 3,000 men, led by Hugh Mortimer and John of Hainaut, landed on the coast of Suffolk. The most powerful nobles and prelates hastened to meet her, and Edward, having in vain appealed to the citizens for support, was obliged to retreat to the marshes of Wales. The queen pursued him, and he took shipping for Ireland, but, unlucky by sea as well as by land, was driven back by contrary winds, was found concealed in the mountains of Wales, and sent in custody to the castle of Kenilworth. The favorite Spenser was taken at the same time and hanged. The parliament being assembled, by the influence of Isabella and Mortimer, it was resolved that the reign of Edward of Caernarvon had ceased. While imprisoned in Berkeley castle under the charge of ruffians employed by Mortimer, Edward II. was found dead in his bed in the morning after shrieks had been heard from his apartment during the night, and his distorted features betrayed the agony in which he had expired.

EDWARD III., eldest son of Edward II. and Isabella of France, born at Windsor, Nov. 13, 1312, proclaimed king of England, Jan. 25, 1327, died at Shene, now Richmond, June 21, 1377. At the age of 12 years he went with a splendid retinue to France to do homage to Charles IV. for the possession of Guienne and Ponthieu, which had been resigned to him by his father. He remained with his mother at the French court, was contracted in marriage by her to Philippa, daughter of the count of Hainaut, accompanied her and her followers in their invasion of England, and was declared king after the captivity of his father. A council of regency, consisting of 4 bishops and 10 noblemen, most of whom, being of Isabella's party, gave up to her and Mortimer (now created earl of March) the ascendency in the government,

had but just been appointed, when Robert Bruce, in violation of the truce between Scotland and England, sent an army of 24,000 men under Randolf and Douglas, which ravaged the county of Cumberland. Young Edward marched to the north with over 40,000 men, made a vain pursuit of the Scots, came up with them twice when they were in inaccessible positions, is recorded to have wept when he found himself out-generalled by the skill of an inferior enemy, and concluded an inglorious campaign by a treaty in which the entire independence of Scotland was recognized. The odium of this settlement was thrown upon Isabella and Mortimer, who increased their unpopularity by intrigues against the earl of Kent, whom they caused to be executed for high treason in 1330. At the age of 18, Edward, having determined to assert his own authority against his mother and her favorite, contrived their arrest. Mortimer was executed for high treason at Smithfield, and Isabella was confined for the rest of her life in the manor of Risings. Immediately after assuming the government he renewed his father's and grandfather's project of conquering Scotland, and secretly encouraged the claim of Edward Baliol to the crown of that country, who was willing to hold it as a fief of the English monarch. Baliol won the crown and lost it within 3 months, and the incursions of the Scots gave to Edward the pretext which he desired to renew the war and attempt to restore the refugee. He laid siege to Berwick, and (July 19, 1333) defeated on Halidon hill with great loss the army of the regent Douglas, who had approached for its relief. The town and castle were immediately surrendered, and Baliol being again seated on the throne of Scotland dismembered the kingdom by a large cession of territory to England, a measure which was followed by his flight to England within 4 months. Three times Edward invaded and devastated Scotland in support of Baliol, but had not conquered the independent spirit of the country when he suffered the war to languish, having determined to lay claim to the crown of France against Philip of Valois. The ground of this pretension was, that although females were excluded from the French throne, the male descendants of females were not; and that as the son of Isabella, the daughter of Charles IV., his claim was better than that of Philip, who was descended from a younger brother of Charles IV. To carry his mighty design into execution, he made alliance with several continental princes and rulers, the chief of whom were Louis of Bavaria, emperor of Germany, the dukes of Brabant and Gueldres, and Artevelde of Ghent. Edward formally published his claim in 1337, and in the following year sailed with a numerous fleet to Antwerp, designing to begin the campaign with the siege of Cambrai; but perceiving the difficulty of the enterprise, he advanced into France with about 50,000 men, was almost confronted with an army of nearly double the force under Philip, yet no engagement ensued, and he at

length returned to Brussels and disbanded his army without having derived any advantage from his immense expenditures. He returned to England in 1340, obtained an unprecedented grant from parliament, defeated a French fleet off Sluis which Philip had sent to intercept him, returned to the continent, and at the head of 200,000 men undertook at the same time the sieges of Tournay and St. Omer, both of which were unsuccessful; and he quickly concluded an armistice for 9 months, and soon after another for 3 years and 8 months. Another English campaign in France was begun in 1346 under the earl of Derby, and prosecuted with uninterrupted success. Edward also landed with a numerous force on the coast of Normandy, advanced to Rouen, sent his light troops to insult the faubourgs of Paris, and on Aug. 26 gained over Philip the decisive battle of Crécy. The siege of Calais followed, and while the chivalry of England lay before the walls of that city, the Scots suddenly crossed the frontiers, but were defeated by a miscellaneous and rapidly collected army, led, according to the improbable testimony of Froissart, by Queen Philippa. Calais surrendered after an obstinate defence, and a truce followed which lasted till 1355. Meantime, Edward invaded and widely desolated Scotland, causing a havoc long remembered by the natives. The war was renewed in France under the Black Prince, who gained in 1356 the memorable victory of Poitiers, in which he took King John of France prisoner, who was not ransomed till 1360. In that year the "great peace" was concluded at Bretigni, by which Edward renounced his pretensions to the crown of France and restored his conquests, retaining only the full sovereignty of Poitou, Guienne, and the county of Ponthieu. Though the misfortunes of the latter years of his reign contrasted strongly with the glories of its commencement, and though his victories left few lasting acquisitions, yet they gave to England a lustre and renown which were long her strength and safety. In his reign the elegant arts began to be cultivated, the castle of Windsor was rebuilt, the order of the garter was instituted, and English poetry and prose may be said to have been begun.

EDWARD IV., king of England, born in Rouen, April 29, 1441, died April 9, 1483. An old chronicler speaks of "the troublous season of King Henry VI., the prosperous reign of King Edward IV., the pitiful life of King Edward V., and the tragical doings of King Richard III." The lot of the feeble Henry VI. fell most inappropriately in an age of violence, to which he brought only meekness of spirit; and he saw during his reign the splendid achievements of foreign victory exchanged for defeats and ignominy, his title to the throne disputed, and England torn to pieces by civil war. His own insignificance, the dishonor of the English arms, and the passionate tyranny of his indomitable queen, Margaret of Anjou, were the occasion of reviving the long forgotten pretensions

son.

of the house of York. The great Lancastrian chiefs, Cardinal Beaufort and the dukes of Bedford and Gloucester, who ably though discordantly supported the throne during the minority of Henry, were dead, when Richard, duke of York, the father of Edward IV., returned from Ireland, cautiously and gradually advanced his claim to the throne, gained the support of the powerful earls of Warwick and Salisbury, took arms against Somerset, the last great nobleman of the Lancastrian branch, and began by a victory at St. Albans, in 1455, the wars between the red rose of Lancaster and the white rose of York. The claims of both these Plantagenet lines were derived from Edward III. From the first 2 sons of that sovereign no issue survived; the 3 Lancastrian kings who had occupied the throne for more than half a century were descended from the 4th son; the dukes of York were descended from the 5th son, but had also by intermarriage become heirs to the rights of the 3d The question of genealogical right, complicated in itself, was rendered more so by the irregular accession of the 1st Lancaster, while Edmund Mortimer, the heir of the 3d son, was alive, and by decrees of parliament. Richard, duke of York, after various successes and reverses in maintaining his claim, was defeated and slain by Queen Margaret, at Wakefield, in 1460; and young Edward, the inheritor of his father's pretensions and ability, immediately put himself at the head of an army of Welsh borderers and mountaineers, and defeated a formidable force under the earls of Pembroke and Ormond, at Mortimer's Cross. He then marched southward, supported by the earl of Warwick, who suffered a defeat at Barnet Heath by which Henry was again restored to his friends. Edward marched directly to London, which he entered without opposition, and where his youth, boldness, and beauty gained him the public favor. He was proclaimed king in 1461, and thus there were two kings and two royal armies in the land. Both parties made the most formidable preparations for battle, and at Towton, near York, 100,000 Englishmen were drawn up, in not very unequal division, in hostile array. Proclamation had been made that no quarter should be given, and the battle was probably the bloodiest in English history. It lasted more than a day, and ended, after the slaughter of more than 30,000 persons, in the total rout of the Lancastrians; and thus the crown was firmly placed on the brow of Edward IV. The cause of the red rose seemed desperate, but it was supported by the courage and energy of Margaret. She sailed to France, seeking the alliance of the French king; and perils by land and by sea, shipwreck, and capture by roving banditti, make up the wild story of her adventures, till in 1464 she appears again in Scotland, at the head of only 500 French troops, with whom, and a band of Scottish borderers, she gave battle to the English general, Lord Montacute, near Hexham. The Lancastrians were again com

pletely routed; the king and many of the chiefs were captured on the field, or after lurking for a while in concealment; and Margaret again made her escape through Scotland into France, with her son and his famous preceptor, Sir John Fortescue. Edward, acting upon the maxim of Macchiavelli, with characteristic vigor, made a terrible slaughter of his enemies in the first moment of victory, and in his subsequent administration ruled with clemency. After this second retreat of Margaret, he devoted himself for a time to pleasure. He had been hunting in the forest of Grafton, when he met, at her father's house, Elizabeth, widow of Sir John Grey and daughter of Richard Widville, Baron Rivers. The impetuous king, in vain seeking an illicit union, consented to a private marriage with her (April, 1464), and she was within a year publicly acknowledged queen, and her father was made an earl. This union displeased the powerful and haughty earl of Warwick, who had before been authorized to negotiate for the marriage of the king with the princess Bonne of Savoy, and who was moreover indignant at the influence possessed by the new queen, which she employed in the elevation of her own friends. The malcontent earl, allying himself with Edward's brother, the duke of Clarence, broke out into open revolt in 1469. The effect of his combination with the discontented nobility and gentry was quickly seen in seditions fomented in every part of the country. In Yorkshire, Robin of Redesdale, a hero among the troopers of the frontier, took the field with 60,000 men. Edward marched against them, unaware of the danger to which he exposed his capital. Warwick, absent in France, had gained the favor of Louis XI., and had even become reconciled with his old enemy, Margaret. He landed at Dartmouth with a small body of troops, where his popularity swelled his army in a few days to more than 60,000 men. He advanced to the north, and his approach shook the fidelity of the royal troops. Edward fled in 1470 to Holland, and his imprisoned rival was led forth from the tower to hear the streets of London resounding once more with the name of King Henry. A parliament was summoned in the name of the restored king, by which Edward was pronounced a usurper, his adherents were attainted, and all acts passed by his authority repealed. This restoration gave, however, but a brief respite to the Lancastrian family. The fugitive Edward, secretly assisted by the duke of Burgundy, collected a body of Flemings and Dutchmen in a few months, with whom he entered the Humber, and landed at Ravenspur. He advanced into the interior, pretending at first that he came only to recover his patrimony as duke of York, and making his followers cry "Long live King Henry," till he received reënforcements which put him in a condition to face the enemy. The adverse armies met at Barnet, on Easter morning, April 14, 1471, and the Lancastrians were defeated and Warwick himself slain. Edward

now again became master of London, and of the person of Henry, who was remanded to the tower, never again to leave it. Meanwhile, Margaret, with her son, now 18 years of age, landed at Weymouth at the head of a body of French troops on the very day of the battle of Barnet. The first event of which she received tidings was her husband's captivity and the defeat and death of Warwick. Nevertheless, she determined to defend to the utmost her fallen fortunes, and with an army commanded by the duke of Somerset made a stand at Tewkesbury, May 4, 1471. Her army was defeated, her son Prince Edward slain, and she herself taken prisoner and held in captivity 5 years, when she was ransomed by the king of France. Her husband was put to death in the tower, May 21. Edward formed an alliance in 1474 with the duke of Burgundy, by which France was to be divided into two states, one of which, comprehending the northern and eastern provinces, should belong to Burgundy, and the other should be possessed by England. He passed over to Calais with a force of archers and men-at-arms, only, however, to be disappointed by the duke of Burgundy, who sent his apology instead of an army, and to make an advantageous treaty with Louis without a battle. By this treaty pensions of considerable amounts were bestowed by Louis not only upon the English king, but also upon all the considerable persons of the English court. Edward returned to England to become involved in a bitter strife with his brother Clarence. The interference of Edward prevented the marriage of Clarence with the wealthy heiress of Burgundy; soon afterward two of the friends of Clarence were put to death upon a frivolous pretence, joined with an accusation of sorcery; and when he maintained their innocence, he was himself privately put to death, Feb. 1478, upon a charge of treason, for arraigning public justice. During the latter part of his life Edward was sunk in indolence and pleasure. He left 5 daughters, of whom Elizabeth was afterward married to Henry VII.; and 2 sons, the ill-fated princes Edward and Richard.

EDWARD V., king of England, of the York branch of the Plantagenets, son and successor of the preceding, born Nov. 4, 1470, in the sanctuary of Westminster abbey, whither his mother had fled for refuge from the army of the Lancastrian Queen Margaret and of Warwick, died doubtless by murder in the tower of London, where he was imprisoned, in 1483. At the time of his father's death, April 9, 1483, young Edward was residing on the borders of Wales, in the care of the earl Rivers, brother of the queen. In company with Rivers he immediately set out for London, while the duke of Gloucester, the brother of the late king, and now the regent during the minority, started for the south from York, attended by a splendid retinue. The two processions met at Stony Stratford, when Gloucester approached the young prince with the greatest demonstrations of respect but soon after charged