may be studied according to either one of those methods. We reason inductively when we pass from the particular facts to the general law which underlies the facts; deductively, when we reverse this process, and pass from the fundamental law to the particular facts embraced within it. The point of view from which man should be contemplated depends on the nature of the particular science which finds its data in his complex organism. The study of human nature has developed several sciences; while there are several others waiting to be developed through our advancing knowledge. The science of sociology makes prominent those social instincts and tendencies which move men to organize themselves into communities. Ethics views man as a moral being endowed with a conscience, and founds on this the laws of right action which regulate the conduct of men in their relations to one another. Theology deals with the religious faculty in man, and the spiritual facts in his history to which this faculty has given origin. Physiology brings into prominence man's physical organism; while psychology makes prominent mental phenomena as its special subject-matter. But the educational process, in any view which we may take of it, must take account of the whole man, physical, intellectual, moral, and spiritual. Hence, of all the students of human nature, there are none who are required to take so comprehensive a view of man as is the educator who has to deal with this "paragon of animals" as a combination of complex forces, physical and mental, which as they gradually assert their power in his unfolding organism he is required. to control and direct. While therefore those other sciences of human nature, from their special character, are allowed to view exclusively some particular aspect of man's being, education as a science must view him in all aspects, as a social, moral, religious being,—as a complex being, composed of body, soul, and spirit. With regard to the two methods of studying human nature, the objective and the subjective, the former should precede the latter, for the reason that man stands as the apex of earthly being, and forms the culmination, the final summing up of the vast system of nature, mineral, vegetable, animal, and spiritual. Hence, the scientific study of human nature must advance from the inorganic to the organic, from physics to physiology, and from physiology to psychology. By thus ascending step by step, we come to the nervous system, the culmination of which is the brain which presents

matter in its most highly organized and exalted state as known to us. The next step leads to those immaterial phenomena known as psychical, the highest manifestation of which is consciousness. Again, in the study of human nature induction must precede deduction. In mathematics we may pursue the deductive method, because a single case possesses the characteristics of universality and necessity which admits of no exceptions or modifications. But in the biological sciences, among which are classed physiology, psychology, and education, the elements and forces which operate together to produce phenomena known as vital, each individual case is a product of many factors, all of which must be taken into the account to give even qualitative results. Every child placed under the training of the teacher is a complex and difficult problem, demanding, at his hands, a true solution. Into every concrete example there enter many forces and elements combined in a way that never repeats itself in any two cases, so that it is possible to attain to any thing like scientific prevision only by an extensive induction of facts. What, then, are those facts? We can be put on the true line of investigation by considering that Education as a process, or movement towards the realization of a definite end, must proceed according to certain well-established laws. It must have its genesis, its causes, efficient and conditional, its form, and its final end. We must therefore have (1.) the law of its genesis, (2.) the law of its efficient cause, (3.) the law or laws of its conditional causes, (4.) the law of its form, and (5.) the law of its final end. § 3. The Duality of Human nature.

1. The fundamental fact in the organism of man. The first important fact which a true theory of education must take into the account, which, indeed, constitutes the basis and primordial principle out of which all others are evolved is the duality of human nature. One aspect of this nature presents the phenomenon of a physical organism composed of different coëxistent organs occupying space; the other, that of a mental structure made up of successive states of consciousness manifested in time. The body with its material organs serves as the instrument through which action and reaction are carried on between the subjective mental world and the objective material world. The mode of union between these two natures has been the puzzling problem of speculative philosophy in all ages. The materialist would surmount the difficulty by mak

ing man all matter; the idealist, by making him all spirit. But neither one of those theories is any real solution of this mystery, since consciousness itself in all its phases ever asserts that between that whose essential nature is extension and that whose essential attribute is thought there can be nothing like identity or similarity. Hence, the practical educator accepts the duality of man as an ultimate fact in nature which may afford material for the discussions of speculative philosophy, but which form the foundations on which science builds her superstructures. The teacher instead of ideally separating what God has joined together in harmonious union, makes a study of those two dissimilar natures of man in their reciprocal action that he may learn the laws of human development and culture. In the same degree in which man's education is made a double process, a development of both body and mind, as demanded by this law of his dual nature, does he exemplify in his being the power, the grandeur, the beauty and symmetry of a life which flows from the equilibrium produced by the perfect balancing of physical and spiritual forces. But we can educate those two natures together only as we understand the laws of their reciprocal action.

2. The Reciprocal action of Body and Mind. Since the two natures of man, the physical and the mental, are united into a living unit, it follows that we cannot understand the laws which control the action of one part of his nature without understanding those which control the other part. Body and mind must be studied together by the educator and physician for the same reason that the physiologist must study organs and their correlated functions together, in order to understand either. That two sets of coëxisting phenomena, like those of body and mind, should continually exercise a reciprocal influence over each other, is in perfect harmony with all we know of the course and analogy of nature around us. But this reciprocal influence is a law which has been arrived at, not deductively or analogically, but inductively by an extensive study of facts. The quality and quantity of mental action are found to depend not only upon the Cerebrum, but also, in a most important sense, on the organic life. The delicate thread of mercury in the tube of the thermometer is not more sensitive to changes in the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere than is the mind to the molecular changes in the blood, as is shown by the effects of narcotics, such as opium and hashish

which produce great exhilaration of feeling and vividness of ideas; while, on the other hand, anæsthetics, such as choloroform, so blunt the power of sensation as to suspend the operations of consciousness. But the quality and quantity of this highly-complex fluid which sways with such tremendous power our conscious and mental life depend upon the capacity and efficiency of the organs which elaborate it and propel it to the brain, such as the lungs, liver, heart, and digestive apparatus. The etymology of the word melancholy reminds of the fact that the sympathy of the mind with the organic life had become a matter of common observation long before the correlations of mind and body had been made a scientific study.*

When we pass from internal to external movements, we find in the muscular system of man many striking illustrations of the reciprocal influence of body and mind. The human hand endowed with the power of numberless and complicated motions made possible by its wonderful structure, and thereby rendered capable of subserving ends of the highest order of intelligence, can be understood only by taking into the account the thinking reasoning mind which wields it. Such terms of metaphysics as perceive, apprehend, and comprehend, which originally signified the act of grasping with the hand, afford a striking proof of how large a share this bodily organ has had in educating the mind into a conscious recognition of its own operations. But it is in man's nervous system, culminating in his wonderful brain, that this reciprocal influence and correlation between the physical and the mental are most clearly exemplified. That the manifestation of mental phenomena is the special function of the Cerebral system of nerves, is an admitted doctrine of both physiology and psychology. "In a human being," says Prof. Bain, "the circumstance of being acutely sensitive in one or two leading senses may rule the entire character, intellectual and moral."

If we view this relationship in a reverse order, we find a correlation equally striking and important between mental phenomena and the action of the motor nerves which execute the mandates of the Will in the form of muscular movements. The practical freedom of the will depends upon the extent to which the muscular system has been trained and educated into special modes of action. Unless there are what may be termed volitional residua organized and consolidated in the

*Aristoteles quidem ait, omnes ingeniosos melancholicos esse. Cic. Tusc. 1.33.

muscles through systematic and persistent training, and which are ready to respond to the stimulus of the Will, its power to produce definite effects upon the external world amounts to nothing. We can, therefore, only educate the will by educating the muscles. It is by doing that man learns to do. If this were not true, then when the right hand has been disabled by paralysis the left might do its special work. It is doubtless true, as maintained by Dr. Maudsley, that muscular movements, which afterwards become intelligent and voluntary, are initiated by the spontaneous action of the motor centres of the nervous mechanism. Those spontaneous movements of the physical organism in the form of muscular action gradually awaken in the developing mind of the infant a conscious apprehension of their powers and capacities, and in this way educate the soul into an intelligent conception of their meaning and uses. Thus acts which were, at first, spontaneous and involuntary, come to be performed consciously and voluntarily; and the motor centres through the will become trained into movements which are not only intelligent, but which are far more complex than the simple spontaneous ones.

3. The unfolding of the mind conditioned by the growth of the body. Since states of consciousness vary with changing bodily states, it follows that the educational process, to be philosophical, must find its basis in the laws growing out of this reciprocal and double movement. In contemplating this correlative influence, we see that mental development begins, rises, and expands with bodily growth; that as the sense organs are awakened into action, and trained to perform their functions, well and vigorously, the phenomena of mind in its various elements begin to manifest themselves, and are increased in power and efficiency in the same degree in which their physical correlates are improved in the manner of working; in fine, that a growing body, with its powers trained and educated, is the condition of an unfolding mind. This dependence of the mind on the body is maintained through a complex nervous mechanism which thus serves as the medium between the subjective and the objective world. It is therefore a fundamental law of our dual nature, fully established by physiology and accepted by psychology, that cerebral growth and development conditioned mental growth and development, so that the degree of education, of which the mind of the individual is capable, is determined by the degree of education and training, of