midable, was especially the mark of his brave reproof; and if he did not call her by name, the sure instinct of the people applied to her case his analogies and his rebukes. The emperor, though secretly annoyed by the uncompromising spirit of his religious adviser, yielded to his demands. Eutropius, in disgrace and a fugitive, found an asylum in the church, and a defender in the prelate. Through Chrysostom's influence, too, Gainas the Goth, the foe of Arcadius, was converted, disarmed, and persuaded to withdraw his forces from the imperial city. Missionary bishops went at Chrysostom's order to the Gothic people, to Persia, and even to the nomadic Scythians. With the mass of the people, the love for Chrysostom never waned; but in the year 403 Theophilus of Alexandria, with a retinue of bishops, crossed the sea, and gathered in the suburbs of the city, under the imperial sanction, a council of prelates to the number of 36, or, as some say, of 45, and summoned Chrysostom as a criminal and a heretic. Chrysostom refused to appear at this illegal council, which, therefore, proceeded in his absence to hear and consider the grounds of accusation. Several of these were at once dismissed as too frivolous for notice, and others were expunged as improbable. Twelve charges were alleged and argued. They said that he called his clergy by hard names, that he suspended them without cause, that he occasionally chastised them, and that his whole course of dealing with his inferiors was arbitrary and violent. They accused him, meagre and pale as he was, of gluttony and impurity. They affirmed that he was mean in his hospitalities and fraudulent in his use of the episcopal revenues; that he had baptized pagans on insufficient evidence of conversion; that he had shunned the fellowship of such orthodox prelates as Epiphanius and Acacius; and that he had apologized for Origen, and warmly pleaded the cause of that learned heresiarch. He was deposed; the old priest Arcades received, as reward for his false witness, the vacant chair; and the condemned bishop was hurried away by night to Præmetum in Bithynia, the appointed place for his exile. The indignation of the people was quick and intense. They refused to hear the man who would defend such an outrage. The soldiers brought into the city could not quiet the spirit of rebellion. The alarm of the superstitious empress at this demonstration of popular wrath was heightened by an earthquake which shook the walls of the palace. An order was sent for Chrysostom's recall; apologies were offered; the people could not wait for the sentence to be legally cancelled; and the banished convict returned in triumph to the altar of his church, and resumed with fresh energy his fearless work. His triumph, however, was of short duration. He dared again to brave the wrath of the empress, and the words which he spoke concerning her silver statue and the games in its honor were too contemptuous to be passed in silence. A new council was summoned; and, although

Chrysostom had within it a strong party, numbering 42, his adversaries took advantage of a legal quibble, and argued that a deposed bishop had no right to his seat unless he had been reinstated by a synod. The influence of Chrysostom's presence could not save him; his sentence was reaffirmed; a collision between the imperial troops and his partisans, in which some deaths occurred, helped to weaken his cause; appeals to the Roman pontiffs brought no return except ineffectual remonstrance; a council which was called to decide the matter was prevented from assembling; and after 2 months he took final and sorrowful leave of his friends and the faithful in the city. It was in the Whitsun week of the year 404, nearly 7 years after he had been transferred from Antioch. His first resting place was the not distant city of Nice, where he remained for several weeks. A fire which broke out shortly after his departure, destroying, along with the great church, several of the finest public buildings of Constantinople, was attributed to the vengeance of his partisans, and the decree went forth to remove Chrysostom to Cucusus, a village of the Armenian Taurus. His long journey through Asia Minor, severe as it was for one so old and feeble, was borne with patience, and fatigues of body did not prevent his mind and his pen from displaying their activity. His residence in this Armenian region lasted for about 3 years, broken by an assault of the Isaurians, which compelled him to take temporary refuge in the distant castle of Arabissus. In this period he kept up a various and extensive correspondence, exercised episcopal functions in sending out missionaries and receiving addresses, and kept the honor, if he had not the power, of a bishop. One more remove was decreed for him; and in the summer of 407 the officers came to conduct him to the desolate region of the Caucasus, to the village of Pytius, which had been selected as the place of his final banishment. The way was long, and the marches of the party were forced. They were exposed to fierce heats, to violent rains, and the worn frame of the bishop gave way under these trials more than his spirit under the insults of one at least of his conductors. At Comana in Cappadocia they were compelled to rest, the forces of the victim having quite failed. He had just strength to drag himself to the shrine of Basiliscus the martyr, a few miles further. By night the martyr appeared to him in a vision, forewarning him of near death; and the next day he clothed himself with white garments, ejaculated a prayer, and expired upon the tomb of Basiliscus. He was 60 years old, but prematurely worn out by labor and sufferings. His funeral was attended by a great company of monks, nuns, and Christians from all the surrounding country. Ten years later, his memory was revered both in the eastern and western churches, and in the year 438 his remains were borne with great pomp to Constantinople, and the emperor came as a penitent to pray at the shrine of the saint whom

his parents had martyred. His festival is kept by the Latin church on Jan. 27, by the Greek church on Nov. 13.-In person, Chrysostom was short, spare, and remarkable only for the sweetness of his voice and the light in his eye. Yet no preacher of the ancient church gained the fame of such consummate oratory. His genius was flexible and could suit itself to every occasion and every theme; but his favorite topics were questions of practical duty. He was more eloquent in rebuking sin than in explaining doctrines. His homilies abound in illustrations and comparisons, which prove at once the readiness of his fancy, the accuracy of his observation, and the extent of his learning. Redundance of ornament is the most striking characteristic of his style. He loved a direct address and searching appeals. His invectives were often more vehement than his real feeling, and sometimes the torrent of rhetorical passion led him away from his better judgment. He was by constitution hasty and irritable, and could not bear contradiction. His orthodoxy, though unquestionable, was moderate, and his attachment to the Nicene symbol did not make him unjust to the Arian party. He was well versed in the Scriptures, and borrowed from the sacred pages most affluently and felicitously. He has been reproached in modern times for making too much of good works and exalting life above faith.-The works of Chrysostom are numerous. Several complete editions have been published; one in 1612 in 8 vols. folio; another in 1614-33, in 12 vols. folio; and another, the edition of the Benedictines, in 13 vols. folio (1718-38). A more complete edition was published in 1834-40, in 13 vols. 4to., by MM. Dubner and Fix. Some of his most striking passages are translated in Villemain's Tableau de l'éloquence Chrétienne au 4me siècle. Most of these works are homilies and commentaries. One volume contains what he wrote and said upon the Psalms; another contains his observations upon the Prophets. The Gospel of Matthew, the Gospel of John, the Acts and Epistle to the Romans, and the Minor Epistles of Paul, have each their volume. The productions of Chrysostom's early life, his discussions of virgin ity, the monastic state, the duties of the priesthood, are chiefly interesting as pictures of life and manners in Syria. His most important remains are contained in the 2d and 3d volumes, his panegyrics, his apologies, his sermons in times of crisis, his vindication of the miracles at the tomb of St. Babylas, and his remarkable series of letters to the widow Olympias, his faithful friend in adversity as in prosperity. Of these 13 volumes there is an admirable and minute analysis in Alban Butler's "Lives of the Saints." Portions of Chrysostom's works have been translated into most of the modern languages, and extracts from them are read in the text books of the schools of modern Greece. Chrysostom has been compared as a writer and preacher with Ambrose, Minutins Felix, and Lactantius, in the ancient

church; with Bossuet, Fénelon, Melanchthon, and Jeremy Taylor in the modern church; but in some qualities of oratory none of these are his rivals. His reputation as a Christian orator is as unique as the reputation of the pagan Demosthenes. Of the many biographies of Chrysostom, the most interesting to the general reader is perhaps that of Neander, the last edition of which was published at Berlin in 1848.

CHRZANOWSKI, ADALBERT, a Polish general, born in 1788 in the palatinate of Cracow, of an ancient family, whose name belongs to the most glorious in Polish history. He took a part in Napoleon's campaign against Russia (1812), and fought at Leipsic (1813), under the walls of Paris (1814), and at Waterloo (1815). After the fall of Napoleon he took service in the national army of Poland, at that time reorganized as a kingdom by the emperor Alexander I., accompanied Gen. d'Auvray on his expedition to determine the boundary line between Russia and Prussia, and served under Diebitsch in Turkey (1828-'29). Having been made lieutenant-colonel, he was at Warsaw when the Polish revolution of Nov. 29, 1830, broke out. Adhering to the provisional government, he was appointed commander of the fortress of Modlin, Jan. 1831, and subsequently chief of Skrzynecki's staff. He distinguished himself by his defence of the line of the Wieprz (April), by his victory at Kock (May) over Gen. Thiemann, by his successful operations in Podlachia against Rüdiger, as well as by his retreat to and from Zamosc, whence he carried victoriously a large park of artillery to the capital. Having been made general of brigade, he was further promoted to the rank of general of division after the victory of Minsk (July 14); but an interview held with Gen. Thiemann, the object of which was not divulged, roused a strong suspicion against him, which was strengthened by his continued opposition to strong measures, and by the inactivity of Skrzynecki, who followed his suggestions. But in spite of the violent attacks of the clubs, and his freely uttered misgivings as to the final success of the struggle, he maintained his command, and after the events of the night of Aug. 15 was appointed governor of Warsaw under Krukowiecki. His behavior, however, during the storming of Warsaw, when he was said to have checked the rush of the national guards to the ramparts, and his staying in the conquered capital, which he was allowed to leave afterward with a Russian passport, seemed to confirm the accusations of the patriots. After his arrival at Brussels a formal protest was sent to the Belgian government from the Polish organization in Paris against his reception as a Polish refugee. In 1849, after a lapse of 18 years spent in obscurity, he was chosen by Charles Albert of Sardinia as commander-in-chief, though only with the rank of lieutenant-general, in his second war against Austria. His arrangements, which made Novara and the highway to Milan the centre of operations, and neglected the lines of the Ticino and Po, whose defence was in

trusted to 6,000 undisciplined Lombards under Ramorino, the disturbing influence of the patriotic clubs, the unexpectedly bold advance of Radetzky, who crossed the Po at Pavia and cut off the corps of Ramorino, combined to produce the disaster of Novara (March 23), which terminated the short campaign and the political career of Charles Albert. Several mistakes and words of Chrzanowski were again construed to prove him a traitor, but only Ramorino died, probably unjustly, as such, while Chrzanowski was allowed by the Sardinian government to justify his course in a long report, and to return to Paris.

CHUAPA, a river of Chili, rises on the W. slope of the Andes, forms the S. boundary of the province of Coquimbo, and after a course of 125 m. enters the Pacific.

CHUB, or CHEVIN (leuciscus cephalus, Flem.), a common fresh-water fish, of the same family with the carp. It is very abundant in almost all the slow-running, soft, clear streams of England; and sufficiently plentiful, of a kindred although distinct species, in similar waters of the United States. In all modern languages, this fish takes his name from the head, which is certainly of somewhat inordinate size. In old English he is called cop, in French testard, and in Italian capitome. He 'considerably resembles the carp in form, but is longer and scarcely so thick. The body is oblong, rather round, and of a pretty equal thickness in the greater part of the slope. The scales are large; the irides silvery; the cheeks of the same color; the head and back of a deep dusky green; the sides silvery, but in summer yellow; the belly white; the pectoral fins of a pale yellow; the ventral and anal fins red; the tail forked, of a brownish hue, but tinged with blue at the end. It is altogether a handsome fish. It is said that it will sometimes weigh up to 5 lbs., but such a weight is most unusual; as, while the average does not certainly exceed half a pound, a chub of 2 lbs. weight would be considered a very heavy fish. The flesh of the chub is of but little esteem, being coarse and full of small hairy bones. The roe is, however, excellent; and the head and throat are the best parts, being moderately gelatinous. If stewed with wine and spice, it may be made tolerably good eating; but in truth it is not worth the price of the condiments which will be required to cook it, as it is not only coarse, but soft, watery, and of no particular flavor. The haunts of the chub are in rivers whose bottoms are of sand or clay, or which are bounded by clayey banks; particularly in deep holes, shaded by trees, weeds, &c. They frequently float on the surface, and are sometimes found in streams and deep waters where the currents are strong; in ponds fed by rivulets they grow to a large size. They spawn in April, and are in the best condition in December and January. They afford little sport to the angler, though they will bite freely at the worm, the gentle, the grasshopper, and the natural or artificial fly: for, when once hooked,

their mouths are so tough and leathery that the hook is certain to keep its hold, while the fish has so little pluck or spirit that he will allow himself to be pulled out by main force. The chub is a shy and wary fish, and is affected by the slightest movement of the water, or by the shadow of any thing fleeting over it, as that of a flying bird or à waving bough; and, for this reason, he is a good fish for young beginners to commence their practice on, in throwing the fly softly and gingerly, without producing a break on the surface, and in fishing toward the sun, so as to avoid casting the shadow of the rod or line across the lighted stream.

CHUBB, THOMAS, an English theological writer, born in East Harnham, in 1679, died in Salisbury, Feb. 8,1747. His parents were poor, and his father followed the business of a maltster. He received but little education, and could barely read and write when he was apprenticed to a leather glove and breeches maker. He afterward learned the business of a tallow chandler, and followed it in Salisbury during most of his life. Having by diligent application acquir ed a good stock of general knowledge, and delighting especially in theological inquiry, he organized a society for religious improvement, whose exercises at first were confined to reading the Scriptures in connection with some good commentary. By degrees a spirit of free discussion prevailed. About that time the literary and religious world was thrown into agitation by the controversy between Clarke and Waterland on the Trinity, the immediate occasion of which was the publication of Whiston's "Primitive Christianity" (1710). The members of the Salisbury club invited Chubb to write an essay on the subject. The result was the publication, under the supervision of Whiston, who had become interested in Chubb, of "Supremacy of the Father asserted," which was replied to by Trinitarian controversialists, when Chubb rejoined in " Supremacy of the Father vindicated." He denied the vicarious suffering of Christ, and the divine authority of the positive institutions of Christianity; but yet maintained that Jesus was sent by God as a moral instructor, and regularly worshipped in his parish church until his death. He is included in Leland's "View of the Deistical Writers in England." Pope's opinion of Chubb, as expressed to Gay, was highly commendatory. "Have you seen," said he, or conversed with Chubb, the wonderful phenomenon of Wiltshire?" Sir Joseph Jekyl, master of the rolls, appointed him steward of his house in London, an office which Chubb found as uncongenial to himself as amusing to his adversaries, who made sport of his short fat figure and his powdered tie-wig presiding at his patron's sideboard. He therefore soon resigned, and returned to making and selling candles in Salisbury. He was always poor, and Cheselden used to give him his cast-off clothes. Beside the above-mentioned works, he was the author of many writings, among which were a "Dis

course on Reason as a Sufficient Guide in Mat ters of Religion," and an แ Inquiry about the Inspiration of the New Testament." His style was fluent and yet argumentative, and his temper mild in discussion.

CHUCUITO, CHUCUYTO, OF CHUQUITO, & town of Peru, capital of a province of its own name, in the department of Puno; pop. of the province about 75,000, and of the town 5,000. It stands on the W. bank of Lake Titicaca, at the mouth of a stream which rises in the Andes; is surrounded by remarkable remains of antiquity, rich in cattle and mines of gold and silver, and has manufactories of ponchos, carpets, and tapestry, and dyeing establishments. CHUDLEIGH, a market town of Devonshire, England, 8 m. S. W. of Exeter, situated on a hill, near the left bank of the Teign; pop. in 1851, 2,401. It was almost destroyed by fire in 1807, and has since been rebuilt. It contains a church, several chapels, an endowed grammar school, national schools, and various charities. It is famous for its cider, and once had manufactories of woolens. In the vicinity are quarries of marble and limestone, and some remarkable limestone rocks, with curious caverns which the popular superstition of Devonshire points out as the abode of the "pixies" or fairies. Also a village and castle on the W. shore of Lake Peipus, in the government of Livonia, Russia. The castle is said to have been built by one of a body of emigrants from Scotland, whose descendants still own property around Yeva.

CHUEN-PEE, a fortified port of China. It is situated on an island opposite Ty-cock-tao point, in Canton river, 35 m. S. E. of Canton, and was taken by the British in 1841. At the same time a squadron of Chinese war junks was also destroyed in Anson's bay, a little N. of Chuen-pee.

CHULUCANAS, a town in Peru, in the department of Libertad, near the boundary of Ecuador, noted for the remains of ancient Peruvian buildings, examined by Humboldt and others, and a portion of the road of the incas, which extends along the table-lands of the Andes, from Quito through Chulucanas and Cuzco, the principal seat of the incas, to La Plata, or Chuquisaca, the present capital of Bolivia, through 20° of latitude. This road is constructed of solid porphyry or freestone, cut in immense masses, and is still nearly perfect in some places. Through the entire extent of this road, as appears from remains, it was once fortified by strong buildings, which were for some time called the palaces of the incas by travellers, but are now generally considered to have been forts for the protection of the territory from the N. and E. Chulucanas is 8,943 feet above the sea level.

CHUMBA, a town of the Punjaub, situated on the Ravee river, at the foot of the Himalaya mountains. It is the residence of a rajah, and was once an important commercial place. CHUMBUL, a large river of Hindostan, rises

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in the N. slope of the Vindhya mountains, flows N. for some distance, then N. E., and finally joins the Jumna, about 90 m. S. E. of Agra. Its total course is estimated to be 570 m. side other streams, it receives the rivers Sind and Parbuttee, and it is, during a large part of its course, the boundary between the Rajpoot provinces and Gwalior.

CHUNAR, or CHUNARGURH, one of the principal invalid stations for European troops in British India, a town and fortress in the district of Mirzapoor, 437 m. N. W. from Calcutta; lat. 25° 5' N., long. 83° E.; pop. 11,058. It is a place of considerable strength, possesses a small citadel and extensive magazines; and the fort is built on a solid rock which rises abruptly and projects into the river. On the heights, a number of large round stones are kept ready to be thrown down on assailants. The church missionary society has a church embellished with a Gothic steeple. There is also a chapel for the use of soldiers of the Roman Catholic persuasion. In 1768 the fort, with its territory, was ceded to the E. I. company, and was for some time the principal military depot for the N. W. provinces. During the sultry season the intense heat renders the place ill adapted for a sanitarium. Outside of the town is the tomb of Kaseem Solyman, and of his son, who are reputed as saints by the Mussulmans.

CHUND, or CHAND, a celebrated Hindoo poet, of the Rajpoot tribe, who flourished in the 12th century. He wrote a poem, which is said to contain 100,000 stanzas, in which he alludes to, or treats of, almost all branches of knowledge, and gives a sort of general history of his nation during the period in which he lived, celebrating the exploits of almost all the Rajpoot nobles, and especially of Prithwiraja, the last Hindoo king of Delhi. The poems of Chund are still very popular among the Rajpoots. Col. Tod, who is almost the only authority on this subject, published an account of the life and writings of Chund in the first volume of the "Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society," in which he gives some translations from these poems.

CHUPRAH, the principal town of the British district of Sarun, presidency of Bengal, on the left bank of a channel of the Ganges, on the route from Dinapore to Goruckpore, 24 m. from the former and 124 m. from the latter, and about 34 m. W. N. W. from Patna; lat. 25° 45' N., lon. 84° 48′ E.; pop. about 50,000. It has a considerable trade in cotton, sugar, and saltpetre, with Dinapore, Patna, Benares, Calcutta, and other ports on the river. With the exception of the places of worship and the dwellings of the mahajans, or wealthy native merchants, the houses are built of mud, with tiled roofs. The town has little breadth, but extends a mile along the river. It is only a few feet above the level of the river, which is separated from the mainland by a swampy island, and is navigable during the rains, but inaccessible from October to July.

CHUQUISACA, or CHARCAS, a department of Bolivia, area 29,183 sq. m.; pop. in 1855, 180,000. It extends over the mountainous country between the rivers Paspaya and Rio Grande de la Plata, contains important mines, and is noted for its fertility and for its salubrious climate. The principal town, CHUQUISACA, or SUCRE, is the capital of Bolivia; pop. in 1855, 19,200. It is the seat of an archbishopric, and contains a cathedral and palace, situated on a square adorned with a fountain, also various churches, the university of St. Xavier, a college of arts and sciences, mining academy, convents, a hospital, and charitable institutions. The town is delightfully situated; the houses are well built and surrounded by gardens. In the vicinity, particularly along the banks of the Cachimayo, are fine villas. Water is scarce but good, and there are many public fountains. The city was founded by one of Pizarro's officers in 1539, on the site of the old Peruvian town Choque Chaka (bridge of gold). Afterward it was called La Plata, on account of the adjacent silver mines; but the original Peruvian name was finally restored.

CHUR, or COIRE (Romanish Cuera, the Curia Rhætorum of the Romans), the capital of the Swiss canton of Grisons (Graubündten), the place of meeting of the council of the Grisons, the depot of the goods transported to Italy over the Splugen and Bernardin passes, occupies a picturesque site on the river Plessur, about 2 m. from its confluence with the Rhine; pop. 6,200. The town is the seat of a bishopric (the oldest in Switzerland), and has several churches and convents, an episcopal palace, a town hall containing a public library, a lyceum, several seminaries and schools, 2 orphan asylums, a hospital, and manufactories of glass, cotton, zinc plates, and cutlery. A "Description of the Cathedral of Chur" was published in Zürich in 1857. The Roman Catholic church, outside the city gates, is remarkable from its extreme antiquity. The Romanish, a dialect of the Latin, is still spoken in this vicin ity, and a Romanish newspaper is published here. Angelica Kauffman was born there.

CHURCH (Gr. Kuрiakov, consecrated to the Lord; Saxon, kyrck; Scandinavian, kirka; Slavic, cerkieu; Scotch, kirk; the common root in these forms did not pass into the Romanic languages, but from the New Testament term EKKAŋola, a congregation, sprang the Span. iglesia, the Fr. église, &c.), in its most general sense, the whole collective body of Christians. Its narrower senses are, a body of Christians, adopting one creed, and organized under the same ecclesiastical government, as the Anglican church; the Christians of a particular province or city, as the church of Antioch; or a society organized for worship in the same edifice. In the Scriptures the name is also given to the body of Jewish believers, the Jewish church being composed of all those who followed the law of Moses. The Christian church is the society of those who profess the religion of Jesus Christ. The society of the faithful upon earth is usu

ally called the church militant, and the society of the saints in heaven is called the church triumphant. In the New Testament the name is once applied to a single family of Christians. (See CHRISTIANITY.)-Christians have always given the appellation church to the edifices designed for public worship. The ancient churches had an atrium, or open space surrounded with walls, before the entrance; in the centre of this there was a fountain, in which all washed their hands or faces before entering the church, as an emblem of the purity of soul which they should possess. Before the door there was a covered court, the roof of which was supported by columns; in this were placed the first class of penitents, who were called flentes. In the interior, the part of the church near the door was called the narthex; in this the catechumens and the penitents, who were called audientes, were placed. Then came the nave, the lower part of which was occupied by the penitents called the prostrati; while the laity were arranged, the men on one side and the females on the other, in the remainder of the nave. In the centre was the ambon, or pulpit, large enough to contain several persons, who acted as chanters. The choir was separated from the nave by cancelli, or rails; in this were situated the altar, the throne of the bishop, and the seats of the priests. As it terminated in a semicircle, it was called the apsis. A curtain drawn round the altar concealed it from the view of the catechumens, and from those who were unbelievers, during the time of the divine mysteries. (See ARCHITECTURE and CATHEDRAL.)

CHURCH, BENJAMIN, an American soldier in the early Indian wars, born at Duxbury, Mass., in 1639, died at Little Compton, Jan. 17, 1718. He was exposed from childhood to perils from the Indians, with whom, in King Philip's war, he had several severe skirmishes, one of which was in a swamp near Bridgewater; and in Aug. 1676, he commanded the party by which Philip was killed. Commissioned in 1689 as commander-in-chief of an expedition against the eastern Indians, he proceeded up the Kennebec, visited the forts in that vicinity, and rescued Casco for a time. He made 4 other expeditions against the Indians in Maine, once landing at Maquoit, and thence going to Pejepscot fort, in Brunswick, once again going up the Kennebec, and twice ascending the Penobscot and Passamaquoddy, and doing much damage to the French and Indians on these rivers. Under his direction and from his minutes his son Thomas wrote a history of Philip's war; first edition in 1716; last edition, with notes by S. G. Drake, in 1846.

CHURCH, BENJAMIN, an American physician, suspected of treason in the revolutionary war, was graduated at Harvard college in 1754. His talents made him prominent in Boston as a physician and whig politician, but his expensive habits involved him in pecuniary embarrassment, and at the outbreak of the revolution,