though one-of the committee of safety at Cambridge, he was detected in treasonable correspondence with Gov. Gage. He eloquently affirmed his zeal for the liberties of America, and doubtless pecuniary relief was the motive of his conduct, but he was condemned by a court martial, expelled from the house of representatives, of which he was a member, sentenced to prison, and debarred the use of pen, ink, and paper. He was released in 1776, and allowed to embark for the West Indies, but the vessel in which he sailed was never afterward heard from. The 1st volume of the "Massachusetts Historical Collections" has an account of his examination and defence.

CHURCH, EASTERN. See GREEK CHURCH. CHURCH, FATHERS OF THE (patres ecclesiastici), in the Roman Catholic view, those Christian teachers and writers, from the 2d to the 13th century, who were eminent for their orthodoxy, genius, and beneficent influence upon the church. They were preceded by the apostolic fathers, and include several of the scholastic doctors. Protestants usually limit the title to those ecclesiastical writers who lived between the 2d and 6th centuries. That department of theological study which embraces the life, writings, and doctrines of the church fathers is termed patristics or patrology, and is both curious and valuable with reference to exegesis, dogmas, and church history. The most distinguished of the Greek fathers, reckoned by Protestants, are Irenæus, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Athanasius, Cyril of Alexandria, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus, Eusebius of Casarea, Chrysostom, and Theodoret; of the Latin fathers, Justin Martyr, Tertullian, Lactantius, Cyprian, Hilary of Poitiers, Ambrose, Augustine, Jerome, and Gregory the Great. The Roman Catholics exclude from this list Tertullian, Origen, and Eusebius, on account of the heterodoxy of some of their works, but add to it John of Damascus, Peter Damian, Anselm, Bernard, Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventura, and others of the early inedieval theologians. The Gallican church designates Bossuet as the last of the fathers. Most of the patristic writings have been several times edited separately, and the careful Benedictine editions are still esteemed among the best. Of the general collections, the most important are the Maxima Bibliotheca Vetera Patrum (27 vols., Leyden, 1677; it contains the Greek fathers in a Latin translation, and valuable notices of mediæval theologians); the Bibliotheca Veterum Patrum et Antiquorum Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum, by Gallandii (14 vols., Venice, 1765-'81); the Patrologia Cursus Completus, by the abbé Migne (the most extensive of all collections, in about 300 vols., Paris, 1840 et seq.); and the Patrum Noca Bibliotheca, by Cardinal Mai (containing new materials discovered in the MSS. of the Vatican, Rome, 1853 et seq.). Collections of extracts were made by Grabe (Oxford, 1698), Rösler (Leipsic, 1776-86), Guillon (Paris, 1833'40), and Thilo (Leipsic, 1853-'54). Among the best aids to patristic studies are Möhler's Pa

trologie (Ratisbon, 1889-40), Engelhardt's LeitFaden zu patristischen Vorlesungen (Erlangen, 1822), and Charpentier's Études sur les pères de l'église (Paris, 1853). A "Library of Transla tions from the Fathers" has recently been published in England, chiefly under the editorial care of Dr. Pusey.

CHURCH, FREDERIO EDWIN, an American landscape painter, born at Hartford, Conn., in May, 1826. He was a pupil of Thomas Cole for some years previous to the death of the latter. Among the works which first brought him into notice was a view of East Rock, in the vicinity of New Haven, in which accuracy of drawing and great mechanical dexterity were found to be combined with a vivid appreciation of the beauties of nature. After increasing his reputation by further representations of American scenery, he went in 1853 to South America, the striking physical aspects of which he reproduced on his return in a series of pictures. His views of the great mountain chains of New Granada were among the first exhibited in this country, and the glow of color with which they were suffused, and the nice elaboration bestowed upon every object, attracted to them a large share of attention at the exhibition of the New York academy of design in the suc ceeding spring. Mr. Church made a second visit to South America in 1857, and brought back with him a number of sketches, upon one of which, a landscape of great size and merit, he is now (1858) engaged. In 1857 he painted a large view of Niagara Falls, which has enhanced his reputation more than any other work. It is an oblong, about 7 feet by 3, representing the Horseshoe Fall, as seen from the Canadian shore near Table Rock, and has been pronounced both in this country and in England, where it was extensively exhibited and admired, the best representation of the falls ever painted. Ruskin bestowed upon it the highest praise; and, to use the words of the English critics, in the rush of the waters and the fine atmospheric effects, it realized the idea of sound as well as of motion. This picture has done more than any other of its class to impress Europeans with a knowledge and appreciation of Amer ican art. Mr. Church has for the last few years been a resident of New York.

CHURCH, JOHN HUBBARD, D.D., an American clergyman, born in Rutland, Mass., March 17, 1772, died at Pelham, N. H., June 13, 1840. He graduated at Harvard college in 1797, and was for nearly 40 years pastor of the Congregational church of Pelham. He was principally distinguished for his devotion to benevolent enterprises. For 20 years he was officially connected with the missionary society, and for a like term with Dartmouth college. The American tract society, the N. H. Bible and missionary societies, and the Andover theological seminary and the Phillips academy, also received his official coöperation for many years, and each of these enterprises drew not only on his large judgment and untiring zeal, but his slender

purse, which, replenished by but a meagre salary, submitted to an annual levy for the charitable purposes of these various institutions as long as he lived. He published about 25 sermons, beside various articles in religious periodicals. CHURCH, SIR RICHARD, a commander in the Greek war of independence, born in England in 1780, entered the army in 1800. Having spent many years in the British and Neapolitan service, and held, in 1813, the command of a Greek infantry corps, he joined the Greeks in their struggle for independence, and his arrival in Greece (March, 1827) strengthened the hopes of the patriots. He was appointed commanderin-chief of the Greek forces, and ordered by the national assembly of Trozene to march to the relief of Athens. His attempt to raise the siege failed, partly from want of prudence, partly from the dissensions which sprang up among the Greek chieftains. Church, being a foreigner, had many personal opponents, who seized this opportunity to disparage his efforts and even his sincerity. Subsequently he endeavored to effect a union of the factions at Napoli de Romania, and not succeeding in this, he marched with a body of Roumeliotes to the isthmus of Corinth. His object was to cut off the retreat of the Turkish troops in the Morea, and, aided by Lord Cochrane, to attack the western coast. He was in this position at the period of the battle of Navarino. In Nov. he embarked with 5,000 men for Diagomestra, in Acarnania. Capo d'Istrias sent a part of the Greek fleet into the gulf of Ambracia with reënforcements. Reshid Pasha now found himself compelled by the desertion of several Albanian chiefs to retreat. On April 24 Church made himself master of Poro, an outpost of Missolonghi. The return of Reshid Pasha, with 3,000 men, prevented him from availing himself of his new position. Reshid Pasha was gradually obliged to withdraw his troops from the various posts, which fell into the hands of the patriots in 1829, and the capitulation of Missolonghi followed, which emancipated western Greece. Sir Richard now repaired to Ægina, but the personal enmity and jealousy of Capo d'Istrias compelled him to resign; and by active opposition to the measures of that statesman he made himself so obnoxious that he was ordered to quit Greece, an order which he treated with contempt. After the assassination of Capo d'Istrias Sir Richard continued his opposition to the administration of Augustin Capo d'Istrias, who had succeeded his brother in the Greek presidency. King Otho appointed him a councillor of state.

CHURCH, ROMAN CATHOLIC. See ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH.

CHURCH, SAMUEL, LL.D., a jurist and statesman of Connecticut, born in Salisbury in Feb. 1785, died Sept. 12, 1854. He graduated at Yale college in 1803, and, having studied law, returned to Salisbury. He was from 1818 almost constantly in some official station in the state or judiciary. He was a member of the general assembly first in 1818, and 5 times thereafter;

state senator 5 years; judge of probate 11 years; judge of the superior court in 1833, and chief justice in 1847, an office which he retained until his death.

CHURCH, STATES OF THE. See PAPAL STATES.

CHURCH OF ENGLAND. See ENGLAND, CHURCH OF.

CHURCH RATE, a tax imposed upon the inhabitants of a parish in England for church repairs. It is occasionally termed a church lay, and in Ireland previous to its abolition it was called a church cess. The rate is levied by the church wardens of the parish, together with the parishioners, assembled upon public notice given in the church. The levy is made upon the tenant in respect of the land or house he may occupy. By the civil and canon law each pastor is oblig ed to attend to the repairs of his church, but it is customary in England to throw this charge upon the parishioners themselves. It was abolished in Ireland in 1823. In England its payment has always met more or less resistance since the 17th century, especially from the society of Friends. Of late years it has been the subject of frequent discussion in the British parliament. In many parishes, especially in those included in the great cities, the majority of the vestry were averse to granting the required rate, on the ground that it was unjust to tax members of one religious denomination for the support of houses of worship used by another denomination. The church party believed they had a right to levy the rate, irrespective of the popular will. The question was brought before the ecclesiastical and civil courts of law in the Braintree church rate case, which, in various phases, occupied the legal profession from 1837 to 1853. The expenses of this arduous litigation on both sides were borne by a national subscription. It was ultimately decided by the house of lords that the church wardens and the minority of a vestry cannot make a legal rate against the will of the majority. This decision greatly encouraged the efforts of the party opposed to church rates, and the cases in which parishes have been polled for and against the rate have greatly multiplied since then. The frequency of these contests and the ill feeling engendered by them induced the house of commons to pass a bill to abolish church rates unconditionally, but the house of lords refused its assent to this measure by a large majority (1858). The total amount raised by church rates in 1832 was £446,495, and in 1854, £318,200.

CHURCH WARDENS, parish officers whose duty it is to attend to the repairs of the church, the arrangement of pews and seats, and the preparation of all things necessary for the proper celebration of the service. They are required to maintain order during time of public wor ship, and to present to the bishop all things relating to the church, clergyman, or parishioners which are presentable by ecclesiastical laws. The mode of their appointment is commonly

determined by the charter of each parish. In some places they are elected by the parishioners, in others appointed by the minister, in others again by both jointly, and in case the minister and people cannot agree upon a choice, then the former names one warden and the latter select another. There are usually two in each parish, though there may be but one. In England church wardens are ex officio overseers of the poor. By the common law they were empowered to hold in trust for the church, as a corporate body, personal property only, but by a statute of George III. they are permitted to control real estate also.

CHURCHILL, called also MISSINNIPPI and ENGLISH RIVER, & river of British America, rises in Lake Methy, flows S. E. through Lakes Buffalo and La Crosse, runs thence almost due E. to Nelson's lake, and after traversing a woody region and expanding into considerable sheets of water, finishes its course of 700 m. by falling into Hudson's bay.

CHURCHILL, CHARLES, an English poet, born at Westminster in Feb. 1731, died in Boulogne, Nov. 1764. At the age of 17, although he was without any means of subsistence, he married, and his father, a curate and lecturer at Westminster, took him and his wife into his house and supported them on condition of his embracing the clerical profession. In 1756 he was ordained by Bishop Sherlock, and having first held a curacy in Somersetshire, was afterward inducted into a small country preferment which belonged to his father. In 1758, on the death of his father, he succeeded to his curacy. During this period he was exemplary in his conduct, although he himself declares that he was doing violence to his own feelings, and that he was but an idle pastor and drowsy preacher. Differences with his wife, increasing debts, and finally the evil example of a young friend, the poet Robert Lloyd, a quondam schoolmate, plunged Churchill into all the dissipations and irregularities of the town. He was only saved from incarceration by the kind interposition of his friend's father, Dr. Lloyd, a master in Westminster school. The first poem he published was the "Rosciad," a satire on the theatrical world of the day. The criticisms upon this performance drew out the stinging" Apology to the Critical Reviewers," in which he flayed the wits as he had the players. In 1762 he associated himself with Wilkes, and wrote frequently for the "North Briton." The "Prophecy of Famine," a satire on Scotchmen, directed against the Bute administration, completely capped Churchill's fame. He was involved in the famous proceedings against the "North Briton," in which Wilkes defended the liberties of the subject against the stretch of kingly prerogative. He wrote the "Duellist," the "Author," "Gotham," the "Candidate," the "Farewell," and the "Times." He died at Boulogne while on a visit to his friend Wilkes, and was buried at Dover. "No English poet," says Southey, "had ever enjoyed so excessive

and so short-lived a popularity; and indeed no one seems more thoroughly to have understood his own powers; there is no indication in any of his pieces that he could have done any thing better than the thing he did." His complete works were published in 1804.

CHURCHILL, JOHN, duke of Marlborough, a British general, born June 24, 1650, at Ashe, in Devonshire, died June 16, 1722. He was the son of Sir Winston Churchill, a royalist of some note, who procured for him the place of page to the duke of York, shortly after the restoration, his sister Arabella being appointed maid of honor to the duchess. He was a favorite with the duke from the first, and was by him made an ensign in the guards at the age of 16. He served at Tangier, and in the auxiliary force which Charles II. sent to aid the French in their attack on Holland, where in 1672 he attracted the attention and received the praise of Turenne. Even at that time he gave proof of his wonderful military capacity, and he was fortunate in serving under the ablest of living generals. Louis XIV. made him a colonel, and the duke of York gave him high appointments in his household. He owed his advancement as much to his sister's influence as to his own merits, she being the duke of York's mistress. He was engaged in not a few of those intrigues of gallantry which were so common at the court, and is said to have jumped from the window of the chamber of the duchess of Cleveland, one of the most noted of the king's mistresses, to avoid the king. The lady rewarded him by the present of £5,000, with which he purchased an annuity of £500 a year. Even in his youth he was noted for an economy that much resembled avarice. In 1678 he married Sarah Jennings, a young woman of good family, but poor. The marriage was unquestionably one of affection on his side, as he refused in her favor the hand of an opulent girl. Sarah was then as vixenish as in after days, when her tongue and temper affected the destinies of great nations, and seems to have annoyed her lover much. This marriage was probably as eventful a one as ever was made by parties beneath royal rank. The first effect of it was to make Churchill's life regular. He received military promotion, and was employed in various ways both by the king and the duke. Accompanying the latter to Scotland, he nearly lost his life by shipwreck, his master's affection alone standing between him and death. He was made Lord Churchill in the peerage of Scotland in 1683; and the same year, on the marriage of the princess Anne with Prince George of Denmark, Lady Churchill was made chief lady of her bedchamber, an appointment that was to have singular consequences. The ladies had been friends for some time, on the principle of joining contrasts, for no two persons could be more unlike; the princess being as dull, heavy, and yielding as the baroness was lively, changeable, and imperious. The most wonderful of friendships resulted; and the princess was the first to propose that

their intercourse should be divested of form and ceremony. They corresponded, when unavoidably separated, under the names of Morley and Freeman, names of the mistress's invention, the servant selecting that of Freeman because, according to herself, it accorded most with her frank temper. The influence thus established lasted for about a quarter of a century, and would have ended only with Anne's life if the servant had known how to govern her own fierce feelings. O1. the duke of York becoming James II., Churchill was made general, and ambassador to France. On the invasion by the duke of Monmouth, he was prominent in his military services; the victory of Sedgemoor was due to him, and he was rewarded for it, and had previously been made Baron Churchill of Sandridge, the latter being the name of his wife's birthplace. He was not conspicuous during the reign of James II., and was opposed to the policy of that prince. His intellect was too clear not to enable him to see that the king's course was leading to destruction, and even Macaulay declares that Churchill was a sincere member of the English church. But his opposition was not of a demonstrative character, and down to the last moment he enjoyed the king's confidence. The influence of his wife over Anne was used with effect to keep the princess opposed to her father's policy, and in 1687 Churchill wrote to William of Orange to that effect, and also placing himself at William's command. On the landing of William, Churchill was made a lieutenant-general, and appointed to an important command, though he was suspected by Feversham, who urged his arrest in vain. He induced Lord Cornbury to join William, and soon followed him, accompanied by several military men, and by the duke of Grafton. His example was followed by Prince George of Denmark, while Lady Churchill found no difficulty in persuading Anne to leave London, and to join the northern insurgents. The influence of the Churchills on Anne's mind was favorably employed to induce her to waive her superior claim to the throne over William. For this the baron received valuable appointments, and was made earl of Marlborough. In the subsequent disputes between William and Anne he sided with the latter. He was sent in 1689 to command the British forces in Flanders, and repulsed the French at Walcourt. The next year he led an army to Ireland, and took Cork and Kinsale. He early began a correspondence with the exiled king, and completely deceived him. His object was not to aid James, but to overthrow William III., place Anne at the head of the nation, and rule her and England through his wife. In 1692 he was dismissed from his employments, and sent to the tower, where he remained for some time. He sent to James an account of the expedition against Brest, which enabled the French to defeat the English with great slaughter, one of his objects being to ruin Talmash, a military rival, who lost his life on the occasion. After the death of Queen Mary, Marlborough

was restored to favor, and made governor to the duke of Gloucester, Anne's son. There was, however, no love between the king and the earl, the latter behaving offensively on several occasions. In 1701 he was appointed to command the forces in Holland, and ambassador to that country, war with France being at hand. He was very successful as a diplomatist, and the king, who anticipated his own speedy end, recommended him to Anne as one most competent to advise and command. When Anne became queen-regnant, Marlborough was made captain-general and master of the ordnance, and a knight of the garter. Lady Marlborough received several valuable appointments in the royal household, and two of her daughters were made ladies of the bedchamber. Appointed ambassador to Holland, he completed the arrangements for the declaration of war against France. Through the influence of Heinsius he was appointed generalissimo of the armies of the grand alliance, when he entered upon a surprising career of victory. After various successes, the campaign of Blenheim took place in the summer of 1704, and on the 13th of August was won the battle of that name, which proved fatal to the plans of Louis XIV. The French and Bavarian army was annihilated. Marlborough had previously been made a duke, and now the manor and honor of Woodstock were conferred upon him, and the queen ordered that a palace should be there built, to be called Blenheim. He was successful in the operations of 1705, when he was made a prince of the empire by the German emperor, who conferred upon him the lordship of Mindelheim, with the title of prince. The battle of Ramillies was won May 23, 1706. Other successes marked this campaign. The duke received a pension of £5,000, through the duchess, and other rewards. The campaign of 1707 was marked by no striking event where Marlborough commanded; but on July 11, 1708, he won the battle of Oudenarde. Lille was taken the same year. Efforts to restore peace having failed, the war was resumed, and on Sept. 11, 1709, Marlborough won the battle of Malplaquet, the most sanguinary and hardly contested of all his victories, and the last of them; for though he commanded in two more campaigns, the French did not venture to meet him again in a pitched battle. His successful career continued, and many places belonging to the French were captured. In the mean time great changes had taken place in England. The war had been commenced by a tory ministry, though it was to support whig views. Gradually every thing changed. The premier, Godolphin, became a whig, and the great offices passed into whig hands. In 1707 the change was complete, though the queen's sympathies were with the tories. The duchess of Marlborough, who was a whig at the time her husband was a tory, bent all her energies to the support of the ministry, and it is probable that if her tact had equalled her talent, that ministry might