PART FOURTH.

Chronicle of Medical Science.

ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.

On the Increased Frequency of the Contractions of the Heart by Direct Irritation. By Dr. T. BUDGE.

In a preliminary communication Dr. Budge states that the frequency of the contractions of the heart is constantly increased by stimulating directly the sympathetic nerve in its course below the heart. Previously to beginning the experiment, it is necessary to destroy the connexion between the medulla oblongata and the heart, either by decapitating the frog or by dividing the nervus vagus of each side. Dr. B. waited always for the whole of an hour after the decapitation, or six or eight hours after the section of the nervi vagi, ere he commenced to apply the stimulus, for which he used the apparatus of Dubois Reymond (which permits the experi menter gradually to augment or to diminish the degree of irritation according to convenience). The increase amounted from 8 to 12 and 24 contractions in a minute. The same effect was produced by irritating the posterior part of the lower end of the spinal marrow. Dr. B. performed this experiment by applying the poles to the denuded bone at the junction between the os coccygis and the last vertebra, without laying open the spinal marrow. He further repeatedly observed, that even in eight or nine hours after the destruction of the spinal marrow, neither by direct nor by indirect irritation could any contraction be effected in the heart, when by the same degree of irritation complete tetanus was still produced in the muscles of the extremities.-Froriep's Tagesber., No. 441, 1852.

On Stagnation of Blood in the Web of the Frog's Foot. By Dr. H. WEBER. In order to test the accuracy of the opinions which ascribe a great importance to the action of the heart and the condition of the vessels in stagnation of blood produced artificially in the vessels of the web of the frog's foot, the author studies these phenomena both when the circulation is free and when it is mechanically arrested, by placing a ligature round the leg or thigh. He brings a certain portion of the web in the field, cuts the ischiatic nerve, or narcotizes the frog, or takes out the spinal cord in order to prevent movements, and then applies a ligature. When the circulation is fully arrested, which does not occur for some time, in consequence of the contractions and dilatations of the artery giving rise to oscillatory movements, he applies to the web various irritating chemical agents. He finds that these agents produce exactly the same effects when the circulation is arrested as when it is free, and when the nerve is cut as when it is entire. The phenomena noticed during the free circulation are as follow:-Dilute potash or ammonia applied to the web causes extreme contractions of the arteries; the diameters of the veins remain unchanged; soon the blood in the veins begins to move more slowly, then stops, then oscillates, then finally commences to flow backwards towards the capillaries. This backward flow in the veins lasts until all the capillaries touched with the solution are in a state of complete stagnation. That this reverse current is not owing to diminished pressure on the arterial side by reason of the contracted

artery, is proved by the fact that solution of salt causes the same reverse current, although the arteries are dilated by its use and not contracted. That the reverse current in the veins is not owing to altered pressure from the heart or from arterial changes, is proved by this fact, and also by the occurrence of the pheno mena when the circulation is arrested by ligature.

When the ligature is applied, the circulation in the part below is of course arrested, and after a time the blood is quite tranquil: after a still longer interval, however, (four to eight hours) the blood commences to move again, and passes directly from the arteries, and reversely from the veins into the capillaries; in this way, without the application of irritating agents, stasis occurs. This stasis is, how.. ever, incomplete, since on removing the ligature the heart's action has sufficient power to force on the stagnant blood, and thus to free the circulation. Very different is the case when reagents are employed. If to the vessels in the web of the ligatured foot, as soon as the movements of the blood have stopped, a solution of potash or ammonia, or hot water, or dilute acetic acid, or rock salt, urea, nitre, carbonate of soda, or chloride of calcium in cold saturated solution, is applied, at once the blood in both arteries and veins commences to flow towards the capillaries, in which vessels the blood-corpuscles are pressed closer together, as fresh ones are added to them: not only the capillaries but the little arteries and veins are thus filled. When this stasis is fully completed, if the ligature is removed the heart's action cannot at once force on the blood and clear the way-the blood-particles must first undergo the well-known changes; they become paler, disclose their nuclei, and finally begin to get loose from each other, to oscillate, and at last to be carried away in the torrent of the circulation. Other reagents, as syrup, or very dilute sulphuric, nitric, hydrochloric and nitric acids, cause a stasis similar in all respects, except that when the ligature is removed the blood-stream is sufficient at once to carry away the stagnant blood. If these reagents are tried at once on an unligatured web, they do not cause any stasis; on the contrary, they cause the superficial capillaries to become empty of blood, while in the deeper-seated a rapid circulation continues. Some other reagents, such as phosphate of soda and borax, have no effect at all on the blood-movements. The author concludes, that the heart's action and the continuance of the circulation of the blood are not necessary conditions to the stagnation, but that this occurs in consequence of certain movements in the blood itself.-Müller's Archiv., 1852, Heft 3, p. 361.

On Blood-Corpuscle-Holding Cells. By M. VIRCHOW.

MR. WHARTON JONES's Review (p. 32) is purposely restricted to the consideration of the blood-corpuscle-holding cells of the spleen, and to the physiological doctrines which have been based upon the observations of Kölliker and Gerlach, and their respective followers. Virchow treated the question on the broader basis, and discusses the origin of these cells without especial reference to the seat in which they were first noticed.]

The author commences his paper with a discussion on the present opinions of cell-growth, and on the application of these opinions. 1. The blood-corpuscleholding cells. Against the existence of these cells he had formerly argued that it was impossible to formularise, according to the known laws of cell-formation, the presumed envelopment of a heap of blood-cells by a cell-wall, and the subsequent conversion of a cell so formed, into an actual nucleated cell. He did not, however, deny the possibility of cells being thus formed, nor did he affirm the universal truth of the cell-formation described by Schwann, nor did he reject the possible origin of cells by cleavage of nuclei. Still, admitting these modes of formation, it is possible to frame a formula which shall include all known facts— viz., for cell-formation it is necessary to have a cyto-blastema of determined chemical composition, and centra, round which the formation occurs. As blastema we only recognise the so-called fatty-albuminous histogenetic matters, which are

all amorphous there are no facts to show that organized tissues, or entire cells, as bloodvessels or cerebral substance, can serve as cyto-blastema. In addition to the blastema, there is in all cases an external influence necessary (such as the contact and action of living tissues, &c.) which calls forth in the biastema those combinations which develop in it the power of organization.

2. After discussing these points at great length, and showing that the formation of the blood-corpuscle-holding cells cannot be brought under the same formula, the author passes on to a consideration of pigment-building. Pigment-grains were formerly supposed by Virchow to arise in two ways, either in the interior of the single or aggregated shrunken blood-particles, or from the passage of hæmatin out of blood-particles into other textures. But in addition, the author's later researches have proved that pigment-building may occur in fat, by imbibition of biliary colouring matter, &c. It is evident, therefore, how cautiously any inductions must be drawn from the existence of pigment-grains in cells; and if such pigment-grains resemble shrunken blood-particles, this may yet be a mere deception, and may not prove that the particles are first enclosed in cells, and then pass into pigment.

3. After these preliminary considerations, the author arrives at the practical examination of the subject. He formerly denied the existence of blood-corpuscleholding cells, as he had never been able to find them. He now, however, admits their existence: he has found, though infrequently, cells with nuclei and decided blood-corpuscles in the spleen, has isolated them, and rolled them over in the field of view. In tumours they are much more common.

Admitting, then, the existence of these cells, how are they formed? The opinions of Kölliker have been shown to be doubtful. The bold conjecture of Rokitansky, that these blood-corpuscles are new formations in the cells, is not adopted, though the author does not reject it, and even seems inclined to admit its probability. As some evidence in its favour, he describes a remarkable cell discovered in a fatty liver; the greater part of the cell was occupied by a clear round body resembling the cavity described by himself in some cancer-cells. Within this body or space were more than a dozen corpuscles disposed round a hyaline bullet-shaped body; between the cavity and the outer cell-wall were two nucleoli-like bodies; the rest of the cell was in a state of fatty degeneration. Were these corpuscles new formations, or were they enclosed by this double wall laid around them?

But besides these two hypotheses, a third may also be proposed. May not the corpuscle-holding cells arise by the entrance from without of blood-corpuscles into cells already formed? As in the experiments of Esterlen, Mensonides, and Donders, solid particles pierced the walls of vessels, and penetrated by pressure through tissues; so may not also the heavy and tough blood-corpuscles break through the tender walls of new-formed cells, and thus gain access to their interior? The hypothesis is backed by no positive facts, but as some evidence that such a thing is possible, Virchow refers to an observation of E. H. Weber, who having injected the liver, found some liver-cells filled with injection: in some of the cells the place of entrance of the injection could be seen, in others no opening could be found.— Virchow's Archiv., B. iv. Heft 4.

The Nerves of the Heart. By CLOETTA.

THE author has examined the nerves in the hearts of men, calves, and oxen, in order to test the accuracy of the description of Dr. Robert Lee, which he in great part confirms. The nerves passing down from the great plexus between the aorta and pulmonary artery distribute themselves partly to the tissue, and partly form numerous ganglia in the auriculo-ventricular groove, as described by Lee, and as previously noted by Remak. These superficial nerves are very soft and tender, and the author has not found them so numerous as Lee did. The author doubts whether the term "fascia cordis" should be applied to the thick uniting tissue; and he states also, that the swellings formed by the nerves crossing the vessels are not ganglia, although they have the greatest external resemblance to them. They

contain, however, no ganglion-cells. The author confirms Lee's statement, that the left ventricle is more richly supplied with nerves than the right, as is best seen in oxen. Whether in hypertrophy the nerves grow, he has not determined.Wurzburg Gesell. Verhandl., B. iii. Heft 1, p. 64.

On Vierordt's method of Blood-analysis. By SCHMIDT.

[THE method of determining the number of red-corpuscles proposed by Schmidt,* has been attacked by Vierordt, who has himself brought forward a new method, which is now criticised by Schmidt. Vierordt proposed to count, under the microscope, the number of blood-globules, as seen in a certain capillary tube of known dimensions. We need not enter into the details of this mode, nor into the strictures made upon it, but merely indicate the present paper to those who are interested in this important subject.]-Henle's Zeitschrift, Band ii. Heft 3, p. 293.

Crystals in Blood. By KUNDE and FUNKE.

[These are two elaborate papers on the crystals which may be obtained from blood under the microscope by the addition of a small quantity of water, alcohol, ether, &c., to various kinds of blood, both from men and from the lower animals. We defer their analysis, as we intend to review, shortly, all the observations which have been made on crystals in organic fluids. We may notice, only, that although the inquiry is as yet merely in its infancy, it is sufficiently advanced to give us some hope that it will not be barren of results, but will eventually throw some light, on the nature of the fluid of the red corpuscles. Both the authors notice the extreme difficulty of obtaining the crystals in quantity, and this is at present a great bar to a satisfactory chemical investigation.]—Henle's Zeitschrift, Band ii. Heft 3, pp. 271 and 288.

Crystals of Hæmatoidin in the Bloody Fluid of a Tumour. By Dr. BACON. Is the bloody fluid obtained by puncturing a large cancerous tumour with an exploring needle, the author observed cancerous elements, blood-discs, and rhombic crystals, of a fine transparent crimson and ruby-red colour. No chemical reactions were observed. In a few hours the crystals had entirely disappeared. The author considered them the hæmatoidin-crystals of Virchow.-American Journal of Med. Science, Oct. 1852.

[Some little confusion seems likely to arise, unless care be taken, about these crystals. The hæmatoid-crystals of Virchow are broadly distinguished by their extreme stability and their comparative indifference to reagents. The crystals described above are evidently similar to those noted by Funke in the splenic blood of the horse, and afterwards, and almost simultaneously, by Kunde, Funke, and Parkes, in human blood. These crystals are of another order, and are distinguished by their extreme destructibility.]

The Laws regulating the Bodily Temperature and the Frequency of the Pulse. By R. LICHTENFELS and R. FROHLICH.

Each

THE authors have made a most careful series of experiments on themselves. experimenter is twenty-two years of age; the pulse of one of them is normally 71 per minute, that of the other 88; the normal temperature of each is 98.434. During the course of the experiments, they rose shortly before 7 A.M., took coffee between 7 and 8, had dinner at 2, and evening-coffee between 7 and 8.

1. Daily rate of pulse, and temperature.-The influence of the period of the

* Charakteristik der epid. Cholera. Leipzig, 1850.

day, per se, was very trifling, but both pulse and temperature were greatly affected by food. Before the morning-coffee the pulse was lowest; by the end of the first hour after coffee it rose, on an average of many observations, nearly 8 beats per minute; it was slightly less rapid at the end of the next hour; at the end of the third hour it was only 3.3 beats; and at the end of the fourth, 2-77 beats over the original number. The pulse did not sink to the number noted before coffee, till six hours had elapsed. The mid-day meal raised the pulse again, and this occurred apparently sooner after protein than after starchy food, but to a less extent. After the evening-coffee, the pulse, which had fallen, again rose, but to a less extent, and its declension occurred more rapidly.

The temperature of the body was affected in a similar way by food, but the augmentation occurred later than the rising of the pulse; so that the temperature was often at its maximum when the pulse had fallen considerably towards the point from which it had risen. The average amount of increase is about of Fah. The greatest average range of the thermometer in the course of the day (between 7 A.M. and 10 P.M.) was rather less than a degree of Fah.

2. Influence of customary liquid.-The experiments were performed in the afternoon; each lasted 100 minutes, and the greatest tranquillity of body was preserved. After beer, the pulse sank 6 or 7 beats in from 10 to 15 minutes; in 30 minutes, it regained its former frequency; much before this time, the subjective feelings of slight incipient intoxication were felt. In about 2 hours, the pulse was heightened nearly double as much as it had been depressed. The temperature, after the use of beer, fell about one-third of a degree of Fah. After wine, the pulse at first fell in the same way, and then rose greatly; the temperature fell about half a degree of Fah. The same occurred with alcohol, but afterwards the temperature rose about a quarter or half of a degree of Fah. Cold water lessened, at first, the number of the pulse, and lowered the temperature. In 15 minutes both returned to their former amount. Coffee, as already said, raised the pulse, but more in the morning than in the evening.

3. Influence of fasting.-Fasting for from 20 to 21 hours lowered both pulse and temperature. At the end, the pulse was from 12 to 16 per minute; the temperature as much as 1-8° Fah., under the normal. The curious observation (made also by Davy and Gierse) was noted, that at the period of customary meal-times both pulse and temperature slightly rose.

4. Influence of muscular movements.-Various experiments were tried with different kinds of movements. 1. A ten-pound weight was allowed to hang from the arm for five minutes, the body being tranquil; the pulse first fell in frequency, then rose; its greatest frequency was after the termination of the experiment. When the weight was on the left arm, the rise was nearly double that which occurred when it was on the right arm. 2. A weight of one pound was held out horizontally; the pulse rose and fell remarkably several times. 3. A weight of two pounds was rapidly swung round and round with one arm, while the other was placed on a table, that the pulse might be counted. This exercise produced the greatest effect on the pulse, raising it sometimes from 30 to 50 beats. 4. Long-continued moderate exercise, carried on to fatigue, raised the pulse greatly for some considerable time, but never produced the enormous rise noted in the previous kind (3) of muscular exertion.

5. Influence of narcotic poisons.—Belladonna and atropine at first diminished the frequency of the pulse (16 to 20 beats), but after a variable time (50 to 117 minutes), the pulse again rose (12 to 30 beats). The smaller doses produced greater primary sinking than the large, but required much longer time to do so; on the contrary, the larger doses produced much greater secondary rising; that is to say, the maximum sinking-point is inversely, and the maximum rising-point is directly, proportioned to the amount of the drug. It might be said that small doses depress, larger excite, the pulse. The temperature was diminished in all cases. Opium, especially in small doses, caused rising of the pulse, but afterwards there was great sinking, and the temperature diminished. The Cannabis Indica produced many