Finally, on 30 January, 1813, he was told that in view of the concordat concluded between the pope and Napoleon at Fontainebleau (25 January) he was free to join the pope. Napoleon had long objected to his liberation, declaring: "Pacca is my enemy". At Fontainebleau he and the other liberated cardinals insisted that Pius VII should retract the last concordat and refuse further negotiations until he was back in Rome with full freedom. Pacca also suggested the re-establishment of the Society of Jesus, although both the pope and he himself had been educated in prejudices against the society. When Pius VII was conducted to Savona the second time, Pacca was deported to Uzès (January, 1814), leaving that place on 22 April. He joined the pope at Sinigaglia whence he accompanied him to Rome. Appointed cardinal camerlengo in the same year, he exerted himself to reestablish the religious orders from the foundations not already sold.

During the absence of Consalvi at the Congress of Vienna, Pacca again became pro-secretary of State, the restoration of the pontifical Government thus devolving on him. He was reproved by Consalvi, from Vienna, for his severity towards the supporters of the Napoleonic regime, and vainly tried to justify his conduct. When Murat, King of Naples, sent his troops through the Pontifical States to meet the Austrians, Pacca advised Pius VII to seek temporary refuge at Genoa, fearing that Murat would attempt to ravage the domains of the Holy See. During the pope's absence, the provisional Government caused the arrest of Cardinal Maury on a charge of having secret intelligence with Murat, and his trial was continued even after the pope's return. But Consalvi, immediately on his arrival, stopped the proceedings. The rest of Pacca's life was occupied in the affairs of the different congregations to which he was assigned, and in the administration of the suburbicarian sees. Leo XII appointed him pro-datary, he was the first to hold the post of cardinal legate of Velletri, and he was active against the Carbonari.

Cardinal Pacca's house was frequented by the most illustrious scientists, men of letters, and artists, both Roman and foreign. He had excavations made at Ostia at his own expense, and with the objects discovered formed a small museum in his vineyard on the Via Aurelia (Casino of Pius V).

Acute observations on politics and the philosophy of history are found in his "Memorie storiche della nunziatura di Colonia"; "Dei grandi meriti verso la Chiesa Cattolica del clero dell' Università e de' Magistrati di Colonia nel secolo XVI"; "Notizie sul Portogallo e sulla nunziatura di Lisbona"; "Memorie storiche per servire alla storia ecclesiastica del secolo XIX" (1809-14); "Notizie storiche intorno alla vita e gli scritti di Mons. Franc. Pacca, arcivescovo di Benevento (1752-75)". (See also CONSALVI; PIUS VII.)

Diario di Roma (1844), n. 39; Album di Roma (1844), n. 16; RINIERI, Corrispondenza inedita de' cardinali Consalvi e Pacca nel tempo del Congresso di Vienna in Diplomazia pontificia, V (Turin, 1903); WISEMAN, Recollections of the Last Four Popes (London, 1858).

U. BENIGNI.

Paccanarists. See SACRED HEART OF JESUS, So

CIETY OF.

Pace, PETER. See Gozo, DIOCESE OF.

Pachomius, SAINT, d. about 346. The main facts of his life will be found in MONASTICISM. II. Eastern Monasticism before Chalcedon. Having spent some time with Palemon, he went to a deserted village named Tabennisi, not necessarily with the intention of remaining there permanently. A hermit would often withdraw for a time to some more remote spot in the desert, and afterwards return to his old abode. But Pachomius never returned; a vision bade him stay and erect a monastery; "very many eager to em

brace the monastic life will come hither to thee". Although from the first Pachomius seems to have realized his mission to substitute the cenobitical for the eremitical life, some time elapsed before he could realize his idea. First his elder brother joined him, then others, but all were bent upon pursuing the eremitical life with some modifications proposed by Pachomius (e. g., meals in common). Soon, however, disciples came who were able to enter into his plans. In his treatment of these earliest recruits Pachomius displayed great wisdom. He realized that men, acquainted only with the eremitical life, might speedily become disgusted, if the distracting cares of the cenobitical life were thrust too abruptly upon them. He therefore allowed them to devote their whole time to spiritual exercises, undertaking himself all the burdensome work which community life entails. The monastery at Tabennisi, though several times enlarged, soon became too small and a second was founded at Pabau (Faou). A monastery at Chenoboskion (Schenisit) next joined the order, and, before Pachomius died, there were nine monasteries of his order for men, and two for women.

How did Pachomius get his idea of the cenobitical life? Weingarten (Der Ursprung des Möncthums, Gotha, 1877) held that Pachomius was once a pagan monk, on the ground that Pachomius after his baptism took up his abode in a building which old people said had once been a temple of Serapis. In 1898 Ladeuze (Le Cénobitisme pakhomien, 156) declared this theory rejected by Catholics and Protestants alike. In 1903 Preuschen published a monograph (Möncthum und Serapiskult, Giessen, 1903), which his reviewer in the "Theologische Literaturzeitung" (1904, col. 79), and Abbot Butler in the "Journal of Theological Studies" (V, 152) hoped would put an end to this theory. Preuschen showed that the supposed monks of Serapis were not monks in any sense whatever. They were dwellers in the temple who practised "incubation", i. e. sleeping in the temple to obtain oracular dreams. But theories of this kind die hard. Mr. Flinders Petrie in his "Egypt in Israel" (published by the Soc. for the Prop. of Christ. Knowl., 1911) proclaims Pachomius simply a monk of Serapis. Another theory is that Pachomius's relations with the hermits became strained, and that he recoiled from their extreme austerities. This theory also topples over when confronted with facts. Pachomius's relations were always affectionate with the old hermit Palemon, who helped him to build his monastery. There was never any rivalry between the hermits and the cenobites. Pachomius wished his monks to emulate the austerities of the hermits; he drew up a rule which made things easier for the less proficient, but did not check the most extreme asceticism in the more proficient. Common meals were provided, but those who wished to absent themselves from them were encouraged to do so, and bread, salt, and water were placed in their cells. It seems that Pachomius found the solitude of the eremitical life a bar to vocations, and held the cenobitical life to be in itself the higher (Ladeuze, op. cit., 168) The main features of Pachomius's rule are described in the article already referred to, but a few words may be said about the rule supposed to have been dictated by an angel (Palladius, "Hist. Lausiaca", ed. Butler, pp. 88 sqq.), of which use is often made in describing a Pachomian monastery. According to Ladeuze (263 sqq.), all accounts of this rule go back to Palladius; and in some most important points it can be shown that it was never followed by either Pachomius or his monks. It is unnecessary to discuss the charges brought by Amélineau on the flimsiest grounds against the morality of the Pachomian monks. They have been amply refuted by Ladeuze and Schiwietz (cf. also Leipoldt, "Schneute von Atripe", 147).

Pachtler, GEORGE MICHAEL, controversial and educational writer, b. at Mergentheim, Würtemberg, 14 Sept., 1825; d. at Exaten, Holland, 12 Aug., 1889. He studied in the University of Tübingen and was ordained priest in 1848; he then took a course of philology in the University of Munich and became professor in the Gymnasium at Ellwangen. In 1856 Father Pachtler entered the Society of Jesus and some years later was appointed professor in the Jesuit College of Feldkirch, Austria. His educational labours were interrupted twice, when he acted as military chaplain to the Tyrolese troops during the Italian campaign (1866), and to German volunteers in the papal army (1869-70). After the expulsion of the Society of Jesus from the German Empire (1872), Pachtler lived mostly in Holland and Austria, devoting himself to literary work. He was the first editor of the "Stimmen aus Maria-Laach", published by the German Jesuits, one of the leading Catholic periodicals in Germany. He was an able and fertile writer on questions of the day: the Vatican Council, the Roman question, the labour movement, Free masonry, and Liberalism.

Among his works are: "Acta et Decreta Sacrosancti et Ecumenici Concilii Vaticani" (1871), "Die Internationale Arbeiterverbindung" (1871), "Der Götze der Humanität oder das Positive der Freimaurerei' (1875), "Der stille Krieg gegen Thron und Altar, oder das Negative der Freimaurerei" (1873), "Der Europäische Militarismus" (1876), "Die Geistige Knechtung der Völker durch das Schulmonopol des modernen Staates" (1876), "Das göttliche Recht der Familie und der Kirche auf die Schule" (1879). His book on the reform of higher education: "Die Reform unserer Gymnasien" (1883), attracted the attention of the foremost German educationists, and he was invited to become a contributor to the "Monumenta Germaniæ Pædagogica", published in Berlin under the editorship of Karl Kehrbach. He contributed four volumes (II, V, IX, and XVI of the series, 188794), the last being edited by Father Duhr, S.J., after the author's death. Pachtler's volumes form the standard work on the educational system of the Jesuits; it is entitled: "Ratio Studiorum et Institutiones Scholastica Societatis Jesu, per Germaniam olim Vigentes". The work contains the official documents of the society which have reference to education, parts of the constitutions, decrees of the legislative assemblies of the order, ordinances of generals, reports of official visitations, the various revisions of the "Ratio Studiorum", schedules of study, disciplinary regulations, directions for the training of teachers, and treatises of private individuals which explain the practical working of the system. Much of the mate rial had never been published. Through the publication of these valuable documents, certain erroneous conceptions entertained by many concerning the Jesuit system of education, its aims, and methods, have forever been removed. Although the work deals particularly with the Jesuit schools in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and the Netherlands, it contains much that is of general interest, and constitutes the most important source of information on the educational labours of the Society of Jesus. Stimmen aus Maria-Laach, XXXVII (1889); Monumenta GerROBERT SCHWICKERATH. Pacianus, SAINT. See BARCELONA, DIOCESE OF. Pacificus, a disciple of St. Francis of Assisi, b. probably near Ascoli, Italy, in the second half of the twelfth century; d. probably at Lens, France,

maniæ Pædagogica, XVI, introduction.

"

c. 1234. Local authors identify him with a certain William of Lisciano. Before becoming a Friar Minor he had been poet laureate at the Court of Frederick II of Sicily. When St. Francis, towards 1212, preached at San Severino, in the Marches, the poet saw two resplendent swords crossed on the saint's breast. Deeply impressed by this vision, he asked to be received into the new order, and St. Francis gladly complied, giving him the name of Pacificus. In 1217 he was sent to France, where he is said to have become the founder and first provincial of the Friars Minor. In the Spring of 1226 Pacificus witnessed the holy "Stigmata of St. Francis" (II Cel., II, 99). When the saint composed the "Canticle of the Sun he wished to summon Brother Pacificus and send him with other friars through the world, preaching the praises of God (Spec. Perfect., c. 100). The last certain date in the life of Brother Pacificus is that of the Bull "Magna sicut", 12 April, 1227 (Bull. Franc., I, 33-34; Raynaldus, ad an. 1227, 64, 65), in which Gregory IX recommends the Poor Clares of Siena to his care. Later authors who say he died at Suffiano, in the Marches, confounded him with another friar of the same name. According to Gonzaga, he was sent by Brother Elias back to France, where he died. Pacificus was long credited with having put the songs of St. Francis into verse. But for the simple construction of the "Canticle of the Sun", the saint needed no help, whilst the other two do not belong to him at all. Some Italian verses said to have been composed by Pacificus are given by Italian authors.

THOMS A CELANO, Vita S. Francisci (Rome, 1906); Speculum perfectionis, ed. SABATIER (Paris, 1898); ST. BONAVENTURE, Leg. dua (Quaracchi, 1898), iv; Analecta Franciscana, III (Quaracchi, 1897), 7-8; 10; IV (Quaracchi, 1906), 285-86; THOMAS TUSCUS, Gesta Imperatorum et Pontificum in Mon. Germ. Hist.: Script., ligionis (Rome, 1587); WADDING, Annales Minorum, ad an. 1212, XXII (Hanover, 1872), 492; GONZAGA, De origine Seraph. Re39-42; Acta SS., Jul., III, 170-74; LANCETTI, Memorie intorno ai poeti laureati (Milan, 1839), 82-86; CosмO, Frate Pacifico, Rez Versuum in Giornale storico della letteratura Italiana, XXXVIII (Turin, 1901), 1-40; MARIOTTI, I primordi gloriosi dell' Ordine minoritico nelle Marche (Castelplanio, 1903), 124. LIVARIUS OLIGER.

Pacificus of Ceredano (CERANO), also known as PACIFICUS OF NOVARA (NOVARIENSIS), BLESSED, b. 1420 at Cerano, in the Diocese of Novara in Lombardy, supposedly of the much respected family of Ramati; d. 14 June, 1482. He entered the Franciscan Order of Observants at Novara in 1445. After his ordination, he was employed in preaching, in which field the Italian Observants of that time were especially prominent. Pacificus also had a share in the preaching of the crusade against the Turks undertaken by his order. The general chapter of the Observants, held in Ferrara, 15 May, 1481, sent him as commissioner to Sardinia to administer and inspect the Franciscan monasteries in that country, where he died. According to his wish, his body was brought to Cerano and buried in the church attached to the Franciscan monastery. His head was given to the parish church of that place. He was at once honoured as a saint, and, in 1745, Benedict XIV approved his veneration for the Franciscan Order and the Diocese of Novara. His feast is celebrated on 5 June. Bl. Pacificus is famous as the author of a dissertation, written in Italian and named after him the "Summa Pacifica", which treats of the proper method of hearing confessions. It was first printed at Milan in 1479 under the title: "Somma Pacifica o sia Trattato della Scienza di confessare" (Hain, "Repert. typogr.", n. 12259; Copinger, "A Supplement to Hain", n. 12259; II, 4573-5). The work was also published in Latin at Venice (1501 and 1513).

WADDING, Annales Ord. Min., XIV (Rome, 1735), 165, 266, 326; (1650), 271; (1806), 184; (1906), 181; SBARALEA, Supplem. ad Script. O. M. (Rome, 1806), 571; (Anonymous) Vita del B. Pacifico da Cerano (Novara, 1878); BASILIO DA NEIRONE, Sul. b. Pacifico da Cerano (Genoa, 1882); CAZZOLA, Il b. Pacifico Ramati (Novara, 1882); Acta SS., Jun., I, 802-3 (2nd ed., 789-90); JEILER in Kirchenler., s. v. MICHAEL BIHL,

bishop was Hathumar, a Saxon (d. 815). Before this Paderborn was under the Diocese of Würzburg. The Diocese of Paderborn then included the larger part of Lippe, Waldeck, and nearly half of the former Countship of Ravensberg.

St. Badurad (815-62) completed the cathedral, encouraged the building of the cathedral school, and the establishment of several monasteries. He received from Louis the Pious special protection for his diocese, which was benefited financially, in that henceforward it received all the court fees. When the bishops received the countship is unknown, but this was confirmed to Bishop Liuthard (862-86) in 881 by King Louis. Otto II bestowed the right to a free election of bishops upon Bishop Folkmar in 974 (d. 981). In 1000 the cathedral was burnt; Rethgar (d. 1009) began a new cathedral, completed by his successor, Meinwerk. The latter established the Benedictine Monastery of Abdinghof at Paderborn, founded a diocesan college at Busdorf, and improved the cathedral school. During the Strife of Investitures, Poppo (1076-83) was first an adherent of the emperor, later of the pope. Heinrich I, Count of Assel, elected bishop under the protection of the opposing King Hermann, in 1090 was exiled by the Emperor Henry IV, and fled to Magdeburg, where in 1102 he was elected archbishop. The See of Paderborn was occupied by

Bernhard V of Lippe (1321-41) had to acknowledge the city of Paderborn as free from his judicial supremacy. Heinrich III Spiegel zum Desenberg (136180), also Abbot of Corvey, left his spiritual functions to a suffragan; in 1371 he rebuilt the Burg Neuhaus at Paderborn. Simon II, Count of Sternberg (1380-89), involved the bishopric in feuds with the nobility, who after his death devastated the country. Wilhelm Heinrich von Berg, elected 1399, sought to remedy the evils which had crept in during the foregoing feuds, but when in 1414 he interested himself in the vacancy in the Archbishopric of Cologne, the cathedral chapter in his absence chose Dietrich von Mörs (1415-63). The wars of Dietrich, also Archbishop of Cologne, brought heavy debts upon the bishopric; during the feuds of the bishop with the City of Soest (1444-49) Paderborn was devastated. The reign of Simon III of Lippe (1463-89) was occupied with the correction

Heinrich II, Count of Werl-Arnsberg, who had had himself installed in 1084 at Rome as bishop by Henry IV, and who had helped in the expulsion of Heinrich I. He received the papal sanction in 1106. Bernhard II, Lord of Oesede (1127-60), restored the cathedral (burnt in 1133).

Siegfried (1178-80) lived to see the downfall of Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony. The rights which the old dukedom had exercised over Paderborn were transferred to the Archbishop of Cologne. The claims of the archbishops of Cologne were settled in the thirteenth century, almost wholly in favour of Paderborn. Under Bernhard II of Ibbenbüren (11981204) the bailiwick over the diocese, which since the middle of the eleventh century had been held as a fief by the Counts of Arnsberg, returned to the bishops. This was an important advance in the development of the bishops' position as temporal sovereigns. From this time on the bishops did not grant the bailiwick as a fief, but managed it themselves, and had themselves represented in the government by one of their clergy. They strove successfully to obtain the bailiwicks over the abbeys and monasteries situated in their diocese. During the reign of Bernhard IV (1228-47) the Minorites settled in the diocese. Under him the community life of the cathedral canons ceased completely, and the canons, twenty-four in number, shared with the bishop the property, archdiaconates, and obediences (1231).

Simon I, Lord of Lippe (1247-77), was engaged in struggles with Cologne; Otto von Rietberg had also to contend with Cologne; in 1281, when only bishopelect, he received the regalia from Rudolph of Habsburg, and full judicial power (except penal judicature); henceforward the bishops were actual sovereigns, though not over the whole of their diocese.

of Church discipline.

Hermann I, Landgrave of Hesse (14951508), was an excellent ruler.

Under Erich, Duke of Brunswick - Grubenhagen (1502-32), the Reformation obtained a foothold in the diocese, although the bishop remained loyal to the Church. Hermann von Wied (1532-47), also Archbishop of Cologne, sought to introduce the new teaching at Paderborn as well as Cologne, but he was opposed by all classes. The countships of Lippe, Waldeck, and Pyrmont, the part of the diocese in the Countship of Ravensberg, and most of the parishes on the right bank of the Weser became Protestant. After the removal of Hermann von Wied, Paderborn had three active Catholic bishops: Rembert von Kerrsenbrock (1547-68), Johann II von Hoya (1568-1574) published the Tridentine Decrees, and Salentin, Count of Isenburg (1574-77), also Archbishop of Cologne. Heinrich IV, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg (1577-85), was a Lutheran; he permitted the adoption of the Augsburg Confession by his subjects. Apostasy from the Church made such advances that in the city of Paderborn only the cathedral and the Monastery of Abdinghof remained faithful. To save the Catholic cause, the cathedral chapter summoned the Jesuits to Paderborn in 1580. Theodor von Fürstenberg (1585-1618) restored the practice of the Catholic religion, built a gymnasium for the Jesuits, and founded the University of Paderborn in 1614.

Ferdinand I of Bavaria (1618-50) was not able to save the bishopric from the horrors of the Thirty Years' War. Theodor Adolf von der Reck (1650-91) tried to repair the damages of the war. Ferdinand II von Fürstenberg (1661-83), poet, historian, scholar, and promoter of the arts and sciences, founded the "Ferdinandea", for the support of thirteen missionaries for the northern Vicariate. Hermann Werner (1683-1704) and his nephew Franz Arnold (1704-18) were admirable prelates. Under Klemens August of Bavaria (1719-61), the Seven Years' War wrought great damage. Wilhelm Anton von der Asseburg (1763-82) founded a seminary for priests in 1777. Franz Egon von Fürstenberg (1789-1825) lived to see the secularization of nearly all the chapters and monasteries in his diocese. The territory of the diocese went to Prussia, the bishop became a prince of the empire;