while inconstant, seem to have been of unwarlike and generally friendly disposition. The first civilized men to encounter the Pakawán tribes were the shipwrecked Cabeza de Vaca and his three companions, survivors of the Narváez expedition, who spent seven years (1529–1536) wandering over the Texas plains before finally reaching Mexico. It is possible also that the Pakawa were represented among the neophytes whom the Franciscan Father Andrés de Olmos drew out of Texas and established under the name of Olives in a Tamaulijas mission in 1544. The earliest known missionary effort among the Pakawán tribes is that of the Franciscan Damian Massanet (or Manzanet), the father of the Texas missions, who in 1691 stopped at the village of the Payaya tribe, near the present San Antonio, set up a cross and altar and said Mass in the presence of the tribe, explaining the meaning of the ceremony, afterwards distributing rosaries and gaining the good will of the chief by the gift of a horse. Throughout their history the Spanish Texas missions were in charge of Franciscans, directed from the Colleges of Zacatecas and Querétaro in Mexico. In 1718 was established the Spanish presidio, or garrison post, which later grew into the city of San Antonio. In the same year the mission of San Francisco Solano, founded in 1700 on the Rio Grande, was removed by Fr. Antonio de Olivares to the neighbourhood of the new post and renamed San Antonio de Valero, famous later as the Alamo. The principal tribe represented was the Xarame. Other establishments followed until in 1731 there were within a few miles of San Antonio five missions, occupied almost exclusively by Indians of Pakawán stock, viz: (1) San Antonio de Valero (later, the Alamo)-1718 -on San Antonio river, opposite the city. In 1762 it had 275 neophytes. (2) San José y San Miguel de Aguayo 1720-six miles below San Antonio. This was the principal and most flourishing of the Texas missions, and residence of the superior, with what was said to be the finest church in New Spain. In 1762 it had 350 neophytes, and 1500 yoke of work oxen. (3) Purísima Concepción de Acuña (originally a Caddo mission in east Texas), removed 1731 to San Antonio river just below the city. In 1762 it had 207 neophytes. (4) San Juan Capistrano (originally the Caddo mission of San José in east Texas), removed 1731 to San Antonio river about seven miles below the city. In 1762 it had 203 neophytes, with 5000 horses, cattle, and sheep. (5) San Francisco de la Espada (originally a Caddo mission in east Texas), removed 1731 to San Antonio river, nine miles below the city. The chief tribes represented were the Pacao, Pajalat, and Pitalac, numbering together about 1000 souls. In 1762 it had 207 neophytes with some 6000 cattle, horses, sheep, and goats. It was here that Father García wrote his "Manual". The ruins are locally known as the "fourth mission". The missions probably reached their zenith about 1740. In that or the preceding year an epidemic disease wasted the Texas tribes, and about the same time the jealousies of the San Antonio settlers and the increasingly frequent raids of the wild Lipán and Comanche checked further development. In 1762 an official report showed 1242 neophytes, although the missions were already on the decline. In 1778 smallpox ravaged the whole Texas area, practically exterminating several small tribes. In 1793 the report showed fewer than 300 neophytes remaining in the five missions, and in the next year they were formally dissolved by official Spanish order, provision being made for securing a portion of lands to the few surviving Indians. Some of the monks remained and continued their ministrations for at least ten years longer. In 1801 another smallpox visitation practically completed the destruction of the tribes. In 1886 Dr. Albert Gatschet, of the Bureau of Ethnology, could find only 28 representatives of the stock, all on the Mexican side of the Rio Grande in the neighbourhood of Camargo. Excepting for a short vocabulary collected by him, our only knowledge of the language is derived from Fr. Bartholomé García's "Manual para administrar los santos sacramentos, etc." (1760), written in Pakawá for the San Antonio missions and published in 1760. BANCROFT, Hist. of the North Mexican States and Teras (San Francisco, 1886-9); BOLTON in HODGE, Handbook Am. Inds. (Bur. Am. Ethn. Bulletin), Texas tribal and mission articles (2 pts., Washington, 1907-10); GARRISON, Texas (Boston, 1903); PILLING, Proofsheets of a Bibliography of the Languages of the N. Am. Inds. (Bur. Ethnology, Washington, 1885), for García title; SHEA, Hist. of the Catholic Church in the United States (New York, 1886). JAMES MOONEY. Palæography (raλaid, "ancient", ypaph, "writing"), the art of deciphering ancient writing in manuscripts or diplomas. It is distinguished from epigraphy, which provides rules for reading carved inscriptions, and from diplomatics, which studies the intrinsic character of written documents, while palæography concerns itself only with written characters and the classification of documents by their external characters. During the Renaissance period the reading of manuscripts, necessary to the printing of classic authors, became widespread, but it was only in the seventeenth century that scholars thought of reducing their observations to a system and formulating rules for the reading of manuscripts and diplomas. As early as 1681, in the first edition of his "De re diplomatica", Mabillon devoted a study (I, xi) to the various kinds of Latin writing, and gave specimens of these in the plates accompanying his book. It was on this model that Montfaucon, after having worked on the editions of the Greek Fathers, published his "Palæographia Græca" (Paris, 1708), simultaneously creating the word and the thing. From that time, thanks to the labours of Villoison, Natalis de Wailly, Léopold Delisle, and Henri Omont in France, of Thompson in England, of Gardthausen in Germany, palæography has become the basis of all study of historical, religious, or literary texts. There are as many branches of palæography as there are different kinds of writings, but the science of Oriental written characters is as yet hardly formed. In general students have had to be content with determining the place of each character in the succession of such characters. (See Ph. Berger, "Histoire de l'écriture dans l'antiquité", Paris, 1892.) In 1819, however, Kopp, in his "Palæographia Critica", laid the foundations for Oriental palæography, while devoting himself exclusively to Semitic languages. The province of palæology, therefore, more particularly consists of Greek and Latin characters, together with all those derived therefrom (Gothic alphabets, Slavic, etc.). I. GREEK PALEOGRAPHY Covers two periods: A. Antiquity (till the fourth century after Christ); B. the Byzantine Period (from the fourth century to modern times). A. Antiquity. This period is much better known today, owing to the numerous discoveries of papyri which have been made in Egypt (see MANUSCRIPTS). The differences between the various modes of writing are not so marked as in Latin documents. Besides, the material employed influenced the form of the letters: papyrus does not lend itself as well as parchment to rounded forms. The chief systems of characters used on papyrus are: (1) The Capital, employed somewhat rarely, and chiefly known through inscriptions. On the papyri it is already mixed with uncial forms. One of the most ancient documents of this writing is the papyrus called the "Invocation of Artemis" (Library of Vienna, third century B. C.). The words are not separated from one another, and the uncial form of the lunar sigma is found. The greater number of the other letters-A, E, P, II, etc.-have the same form as in the inscriptions. (2) The Uncial. The term is borrowed by analogy from Latin palæology. A passage from St. Jerome ("In Job", ed. D. Valarsii, ix, 100) proves that capital writing was formerly designated uncial. The term is now conventionally applied to rounded forms as distinguished from the square forms of the capital. It does not appear to have been definitively formed until the Hellenistic period, and then chiefly at Alexanad, dria. The most characteristic uncial letters are: ▲ ▲, EE, MM, 33, C, ww The first four of these letters have similar forms in the mistakenly sought in the ancient papyri (see Gard- sumes a Slavic letter, the are orna 100 B. C.; papyrus of the Constitution of Athens in mented with little points, for Tоû and rá etc. British Museum, first century after Christ), the abbreviations are few, the words are not separated, and punctuation is rare. The accents and breathings perfected by the grammarians of Alexandria appear by degrees. (3) The Cursive, directly derived from the capital, the forms of which it retained for a long time. The letters are joined by ligatures which allowed the writer to write flowingly without raising his calamus after each letter. This writing is chiefly used on administrative papyri for accounts, census, contracts, letters, reports, etc.; it is found, however, in copies of literary works and a part of the Constitution of Athens, cited above, is written in cursive writing. In this writing the a takes the minuscule form, the B retains its capital form or takes the simpli- fied appearance of u; the H has the form of from the of the first stroke of the Meprojustule Roman period only dates prolongation cursive, which is that of the ancient papyri, is distinguished from the minuscule cursive, used on the papyri of the sixth and seventh centuries. B. Byzantine Period.-The history of Greek writing in the Middle Ages is more or less parallel with that of Latin. Until the ninth century uncials predominated. (Manuscripts in epigraphical capitals were not found in the East as in the West.) In the ninth century there arose in the Eastern, as in the Carlovingian, Empire a minuscule which became the customary script of manuscripts, but which always retained its traditional forms more faithfully than did the Latin character. The uncial is the chief script of parchment MSS. from the fourth to the ninth century. Dated MSS. written at this period are rare, and no more than its beginning and ending can be determined. According to the rules laid down by Montfaucon and Gardthausen, a manuscript is ancient in proportion as its characters resemble those of inscriptions. The most ancient MSS. have disconnected letters and abbreviations; they incline to rounded or almost square forms; the letters are nearly always of an equal height; the strokes are slightly marked; as a general thing, the simplest forms are the most ancient. The position of the initials is also an indication: not much larger than other letters on the papyri, they begin to spread over the margin in the fourth century, and soon acquire great importance; they are at first black, but are later embellished with colours. Such is the character of the ancient uncial, one of the most important specimens of which is furnished by the fourth-century "Codex Sinaiticus" (q. v.). The same is true of the "Dioscorides" of Vienna, written about A. D. 506, in which is found the abbreviation for ou The new uncial, on the other hand, appeared only at the end of the seventh and during the eighth century. To the square and round letters succeeded elongated characters tures and abbreviations, Minuscule character appears suddenly in Greek a u y d E z h & r u terminating in a point; right angles a U Y SE Z U ỠI Kλ μ pão ∞ pot U ZU DIK were replaced by sharp corners; circles became pointed and tapering ovals αβγλεζ η θ ι κ λ μ ν ξ ο π ρ σ τ υ φ χνω The origins of this style have been The first printers adopted this minuscule character for their type. Until the eighteenth century books printed in Greek retained a part of the ligatures and a large number of the abbreviations of the minuscule of the MSS. It was also adopted by imperial or episcopal chanceries for copying diplomas. Abbreviations.-In Greek handwriting two sorts of abbreviations are to be distinguished. (1) Those of religious MSS. are the most ancient, being found in uncial MSS. and transmitted by tradition to the minuscule. The abbreviation is effected by the suppression of vowels and indicated by a bar. The nouns thus abbreviated were those having a religious character. ΘΣ Θεός ΘΚΟΣ Θεοτόκος IC 'Ingous IAHM Tepova Ιησούς archaic letters are made use of. the West, and do not appear (sampi) = 900 in MSS. before the fifteenth National and Provincial Writings.-Owing to the unity of culture which prevailed throughout the territory subject to the Greek Church, there is no marked difference between the MSS. copied at Constantinople and those which originated in the provinces. Mgr Batiffol considers the minuscule in the MSS. of Southern Italy (Abbey of Rossano) as but slightly different from that of Constantinople; but his conclusions have been opposed by Gardthausen (Byzant. Zeit., XV, ΙΗΛ Ισρα Iwarns 236), who sees here simply the difference between the I ХС Христо СТРОC aravpós (2) In minuscule MSS. abbreviations are made by interrupting the word and cutting off the last letter with a transverse line. For the reader's assistance the scribe retained the characteristic consonance of the last syllable. These abbreviations, tables of which will be found in the works of Montfaucon and Gardthausen, are by far the most numerous and increase from the beginning of the thirteenth century. Examples: work of disciples and that of masters. The same scholar has studied, at Sinai, Greek MSS. copied in Armenia or Georgia in the thirteenth century, and has found their writing the same as that of Constantinople. In the West the national writings, as they are called, disappeared before the Carlovingian minuscule, and in the East the influence of the Greek Church was such as to prevent the formation of provincial handwriting. In the West, where the monks sometimes copied Greek MSS. and edited bilingual glosses (see Miller, "Glossaire Gréco-latine de Laon", notices and extracts from MSS., 29, 2), the Greek writing is fre quently awkward or irregular, but, far from seeking to modify its forms, the 28/ (¿delpós), avy3⁄4 (avyovσTOS), Y/(yíveTα) copyists sought, on the contrary, to eix (eixóvos), eip” (eipývn). Abbreviations by superscribed letters are also found: scrupulously transcribe the characters which the MSS. copied by the Greeks offered as models. It was quite otherwise with alphabets derived from the Greek and applied to foreign languages. Created under the influence of the Greek Church, but adapted to a vocabulary very different from the Greek, they became truly national writings. Such is the character adopted by the Copts, which resembles Greek writing, and is merely a transformation of the fourth-century uncial. It was also (ov) from the Greek uncial that Ulfilas, u (15), & (Pai), @ 1 (μwv), Hy (val), (ov) & (os), 8 (ou) Some conventional signs (found tabulated in Gardthausen, op. cit., p. 259) are veritable hieroglyphics; they are used chiefly in astrological or chemical treatises. The moon is designated by a crescent, the sea by three undulating lines, etc. (see Wiedmann, "Byzantinische Zeitschrift", XIX, 144). Lastly, the Greeks, like the Latins, knew a tachygraphical character in which syllables were represented by signs. Several of these tachygraphical signs, indicating endings, parts of the verb "to be", etc., are transferred to the minuscule, and some recur in Latin handwriting. Bishop of the Goths, borrowed, in the fourth century, the characters of which he made use to translate the Bible into the Gothic language (Socrates, "Hist. Eccles", IV, xxxiii, 6), but he was also indebted to the Latin alphabet; moreover, traces are found in this ancient Gothic writing of the runes in use before that time. So, about 400, St. Mesrop, also desiring to translate the Bible, created the national alphabet of the Armenians by a mixture of the Greek uncial and cursive. The Georgian character, a still nearer neighbour to the Greek, has the same origin. Finally, the missionaries sent by the Greek Church among the Slavic people, especially Sts. Cyril and Methodius, created the Slavonic alphabet, from which the writings Ꮧ 6 (ýv) (TI) of all the Slavonic peoples are derived. This was about 855. The Glagolitic alphabet (glagol, "word"), which Slavic legend attributes to the invention of St. Jerome, is probably due to some disciple of St. Cyril, who composed it with the aid of Slavic runes and the (V) Cyrillic alphabet (Leger's hypothesis -"Cyrille et Méthode", Paris, 1868), (TV) unless it is simply an adapted Greek minuscule (Gardthausen, "Palæog.", 109). The most ancient MS. in Cyrillic characters is the Gospel of Ostromir, dated 1057, but there was discovered at Prespa (Bulgaria), in 1888, an inscription in this writing in the name of the Tsar Samuel, dated 993 (Bulletin of the Russian Archaeological Institute of Constantinople, III, 1899). |