were being sung by them. There is now a large and interesting collection.1

Characteristics of the Ballad. The ballad belonged to the people and not to the educated class; it was not written down, at first, but recited or sung; it was listened to and not read; it was therefore flexible in form and the wording was easily changed. It was very short, as a usual thing, and told with great rapidity, there being much more omitted, or suggested, than told. There were no explanations given. It told a simple, serious story which usually had a tragic ending; love, tragedy, and the supernatural predominated. It was full of superstition .because it voiced the actual beliefs of the singers. The passions depicted were strong ones such as jealousy, love, hate, anger, and revenge. There was also shown. an admiration for courage, loyalty, kindness, constancy, and selfsacrifice. There was a constant mixture of fact and fiction. The ballad was told impersonally; dialogue was prominent. There was much repetition and similarity of wording, one stanza frequently being simply a repetition of the one preceding it, excepting that a new line, or thought, was added. The ballad singers loved to lead up to a climax through a series of three statements. They loved. to sing of lords and ladies, kings and courts, and had much to say about gold, jewels, and beautiful clothing. It must be remembered, however, that these things were viewed not from the standpoint of reality, but through the imagination of peasants.

Classification of Ballads.-There is such variety shown in the subject matter of the ballads that a true classification is impossible. The following forms, however, are some that have been recognized: The ballad of tragedy in family life, the supernatural ballad, the outlaw ballad, the love ballad, the lyrical ballad, the ballad of mourning, and the historical ballad.

The Ballad Meter. The ballad is usually, although not always, arranged in four-line stanzas with the second and last lines rhyming. The first and third lines usually contain four feet, and the second and fourth lines, three feet. The meter, however, is not exact.

SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS

1. In reading the following ballads, try to think of them as being sung by some aged peasant woman as she sits before the peat fire in the evening, crooning to the grandchild on her lap the songs she learned in childhood from the lips of her own mother or grandmother. 2. These ballads should

1 See The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, by Professor F. J. Child.

be read rapidly to get their best effect.1 3. We must not think of them as silly, though the wording is very different from what we would find in other narrative poems. We must remember that the peculiarities are there because of the circumstances under which they were composed and handed down. The peasants sang them with simple dignity. Let us try to get their point of view, and find out, as nearly as possible, what they thought and felt.

4. After reading a ballad, see how many of the characteristics pointed out above you can find illustrated. You will probably not find them all in any one. What passion seemed to be most prominent? If there is a tragedy, what seemed to be its cause? Were there any superstitions embodied? What were they? Would the ballad be included in any of the classes mentioned above? Did you enjoy it? Why?

1 Perhaps the teacher will read aloud to the class so that pronunciation of the words may be caught and the effect of the whole be properly felt.

2 brooch.

Note.-Another variation of this ballad sums up the story in the

following words:

Then bespake the treble string,

"O yonder is my father the king,"
Then bespake the second string,

"O yonder sits my mother the queen."

And then bespake the strings all three,

5

"O yonder is my sister that drowned me."

Here we have one of the common superstitions of the folk, which appeared often in their ballads, that of the speaking harp. According to primitive beliefs, the dead girl's hair, which the harper used as strings for his harp, had the power to tell the story of her murder. Wicked elder sisters, or step-mothers, or mothers-in-law were frequent characters of the ballads.

Note. In this ballad we have two old folk themes:-one, where the last will and testament leaves ill luck to the murderer or murderers; and the other, the necessity of asking a brother's consent to the marriage of his sister.