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pees per viss; it was of an inferior quality, and mixed with sesamum oil; an adulteration which is often practised.

The extensive use to which this varnish is applied, indicates that it must be a very cheap commodity. Almost every article of household furniture destined to contain either solid or liquid food is lacquered by means of it. At a village close to Pagam on the Irawaddi, called Gnaunee, where this sort of manufacture is carried on very extensively and to great perfection, I endeavoured to obtain some information relating to the precise mode of lacquering; but I could learn nothing further than this, that the article to be varnished must first be prepared with a coating of pounded calcined bones; after which the varnish is laid on thinly, either in its pure state or variously coloured by means of red or other pigments. I was told that the most essential as well as difficult part of the operation consists in the process of drying, which must be effected in a very slow and gradual manner; for which purpose the articles are placed in damp and cool subterraneous vaults, where they are kept for several months until the varnish has become perfectly dry. Another object for which Another object for which the drug is extensively employed, is as a size or glue in the process of gilding; nothing more being required than to besmear the surface thinly with the varnish, and then immediately to apply the gold leaf. If it is considered how very extensively that art is practised by the Burma nation, it being among their most frequent acts of devotion and piety to contribute to the gilding of their numerous religious edifices and idols, it will be evident that a great quantity of the drug must be consumed for that purpose alone. Finally, the beautiful Pali writing of the religious order of the Burmas on ivory, palm-leaves, or metal, is entirely done with this varnish, in its native and pure state."

A full account of Varnishes will be found in our article JAPANNING, written for this work by Mr John Farey, Vol. XI. p. 53, 54. See CAOUTCHOUC, Vol. V. p. 291, and CHEMISTRY, Vol. V. p. 766.

On Japanning and Varnishing.—It has been a great desideratum among artists to render shellac colourless, as, with the exception of its dark brown hue, it possesses all the properties essential to a good spirit varnish, in a higher degree than either of the other resins. A premium of a gold medal, or thirty guineas, "for a varnish made from shell, or seed lac, equally hard, and as fit for use in the arts, as that at present prepared from the above substances, but deprived of its colouring matter," has long been, and is still offered, by the Society, in London, for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce. These ends are perfectly attained by the process given by Dr. Hare, which leaves nothing to desire, excepting on the score of economy. Were the oxymuriate of potash to be manufactured in the large way, the two processes, that of making the salt, and of bleaching the resin, might be very advantageously combined.

Method of bleaching shell, or seed lac. By R. VOL. XVIII. PART I.

HARE, M.D.-Dissolve, in an iron kettle, one part of pearlash in about eight parts of water, add one part of shell, or seed lac, and heat the whole to ebullition. When the lac is dissolved, cool the solution, and impregnate it with chlorine till the lac is all precipitated.

The precipitate is white, but its colour deepens by washing and consolidation; dissolved in alcohol, lac, bleached by the process above mentioned, yields a varnish which is as free from colour as any copal varnish.

Chlorine, or oxymuriatic acid, may be formed by mixing intimately eight parts of common salt, and three of the black oxyde of manganese, in powder. This mixture is to be put into a retort; four parts of sulphuric acid, diluted with an equal weight of water, and afterwards allowed to cool, is to be poured upon the salt and manganese, when the gas will immediately be liberated, and the operation must be quickened by a moderate heat. If the mixture be made without the sulphuric acid, and this be added in small portions, the heat generated by this means will be sufficient to disengage the gas, without the aid of a lamp. A tube leading from the mouth of the retort, must be passed into the resinous solution, when the gas will be absorbed, and the lac precipitated.

On the preparation and use of a Mastic Varnish, particularly suitable for paintings in oil. By Joshua SHAW, Esq.-Amateurs and collectors of paintings are frequently at a loss for a varnish properly prepared and suited for the purpose of restoring and preserving the colours in works of art. I submit the following observations on the preparation of a very good one, and the best mode of applying it to the surface of pictures painted in oil.

Experience has shown that, for this purpose, mastic varnish is in general preferable to any other, especially in the hands of inexperienced persons, and, with but few exceptions, even in those of the adept. This varnish is generally prepared by dissolving the mastic in spirits of turpentine, over a sand heat, in a well glazed earthen, or in a copper vessel, occasionally shaking or stirring it about until entirely dissolved, which will take place before it arrives at a boiling heat; after which it is strained through a piece of calico, in preference to linen, as it is less apt to give off lint, which is very`troublesome when it gets into the varnish: it is then put into a bottle, well corked, and placed for two or three weeks where the light of the sun can strike it, which will cause a large precipitation of mucilaginous matter, and render it as transparent as water. It is now to be decanted off into a clean bottle, and put by for use. This is the mode of preparing that commonly sold in the shops; but to insure a varnish that can be depended upon, the following observations must be attended to. Let all the mastic be bruised by a muller on a painter's grinding stone, which will immediately detect the soft or oily tears, which must be rejected; as when dissolved in the mass they prevent the varnish from drying hard, leaving a greasy or tacky surface. The next point of importance is, to procure, if possible, turpentine which has been distilled a second time; but where

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this is not to be had, the best kind sold in the shops must be taken; but it must be perfectly clear and colourless, otherwise good varnish cannot be ob. tained: it must not be furnished through an oily measure, (which is but too commonly the practice) but poured out of the carboy without shaking or disturbing it. If any doubts are entertained as to its purity, put about two tablespoonfuls into a common white saucer, and let it evaporate in the sun, which will be effected in two or three hours; and if it leave a greasy residuum or a soft sticky mucus it must be rejected; that only is good which entirely disappears. Thus prepared with good spirits of turpentine, and with mastic bruised and picked, the two ingredients may be put into a clean bottle, when the resin may be dissolved without heat, by half an hour's shaking in the hand; it must then be strained, and afterwards treated as before recommended.

The French sometimes prepare this gum in spirits of wine (pure alcohol), but it is subject to chill on the picture, and produces, in a time, a kind of white scale over it, which injures its lustre.

When it is prepared after the manner recommended, six ounces of pounded gum are mixed with fourteen ounces of pure spirit of turpentine, which may, if found too thick, be diluted with more turpentine. It should be laid on with a soft, flat, camel's hair brush, as it is called, but which, however, is made of the hair obtained from the squirrel's tail. The varnish should always be laid on with as much despatch as possible, keeping it alive, as the artists term it, and floating after the brush. It may be proper to observe, that no kind of varnish should be applied to any painting, without first cleaning it; nor to a newly painted picture until it is perfectly hard, to effect which requires five or six months. Before varnishing, be careful to remove all grease from the surface by a coat of whiting, (not lime) dissolved in water, and laid on so that it covers and entirely obscures the picture; this should be allowed to dry, and to remain on for one or two hours, when it must be entirely removed by a sponge and some clean rain water; then perform the operation of varnishing in a still room, free from lint and dust.

It will sometimes happen that a picture, where the surface is smooth, will look too bright and glaring, which is both disagreeable to the eye, and injurious to the effect of the picture: to remedy this defect, after the varnish is quite dry, say in ten or fifteen days, sponge the picture all over with pure rain water, for about one or two minutes; and having squeezed the sponge, and made the picture as dry as the sponge will leave it, pass lightly a clean silk handkerchief over it, with great rapidity, until it becomes perfectly dry; when a clear, steady, lucid. appearance will pervade the whole picture. Breathing occasionally on the picture to damp it, will assist the operation, while chafing it with the handkerchief. Franklin Journal.

liquid ammonia, swells, and is converted into a gelatinous mass, which is entirely soluble in alcohol. To effect this solution, which makes a very beautiful varnish, liquid ammonia is to be added, by degrees, to pulverized copal, till the swelling ceases, and it becomes a clear and consistent mass. It is then heated to 35° cent., and introduced in small portions at a time, to alcohol of 8, having a temperature of about 5° cent., shaking it well after each addition. A solution is thus obtained, which, after depositing an insignificant portion of sediment is absolutely colourless, and as clear as water. Journ. de Con. Usuelles, Oct. 1828.

VAUCLUSE, the name of a department in the south-east of France, contains about 336,963 hectares, or nearly 1400 square miles. The northeastern part is traversed by branches of the Alps, some of which, as Monts Ventoux, Lure, &c. have a considerable height. A broad valley along the Rhone occupies the west of it. The rivers are the Rhone, the Durance, and the Sorgens, which is formed by the celebrated fountain of Vaucluse, which issues from an immense cavern encircled with rocks and mountains.* The soil in the low grounds is rich, but the pasturage is poor. Silk, linen, and leather are the principal manufactures. The department is divided into four arrondissements, that of Avignon, the capital, Orange, Carpentras, and Apt. The population in 1822, was 224,431, and in 1827, 233,048.

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. See Botany, Vol. IV. Part II. p. 42—68.

VELASQUEZ De Silva don DIEGO, a celebrated painter, was born at Seville in 1594, and died in 1660. See our article PAINTING, Vol. XV.

VENDEE, LA, a department in the west of France, contains 675,458 hectares, or about 2600 square miles. Its surface, which is almost entirely level, is divided into three parts, called wood, marsh, and plain. The part called the wood is fertile in corn, wine, and pasture. The marsh near the coast has been made highly productive. The plain is fertile. The rivers are the two Sevres, the Vendee, and the Autise. It is also intersected with canals and ditches. Corn, cattle, salt, wool and hides, are the principal exports. It is divided into three arrondissements, Bourbon Vendée, the capital, Sables d'Olonne, and Fontenay. Population in 1822, 316,587, and in 1827, 322,826. À notice of the civil war in La Vendée is given under FRANCE, Vol. IX.

VENEZUELA. See CARACCAS, Vol. V. 318

331.

VENEERING, OR FINEERING, is the art of inlaying common wood with thin slices of fine and rare woods. This art has been brought to great perfection by our celebrated engineer M. Brunel. He at first contrived a machine by which the thin slices of wood were cut from the mass, without any loss, and rolled up into scrolls. The London cabinet-makers did not consider the slices thus cut See France, Vol. IX.

Copal Varnish. By J. J. Berzelius.-Copal reduced to coarse powder, and watered with caustic

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as sufficiently strong, in consequence of the effect produced by being rolled up. This, however, was a mistake, for the glue got into the numerous crevices or minute joints of the wood, and held it much firmer than if it had been applied only to a surface. We have seen very handsome veneered furniture with which the veneers were cut by this machine of Brunel's.

M. Brunel then constructed two great circular saws eight feet in diameter, by which he sawed the veneers to a great degree of thinness, and has thus given a new degree of perfection to the art of veneering.

VENICE, a city in the north-east of Italy, is built on from 60 to 138 small islands near the northern extremity of the Adriatic Sea or Gulf of Venice. The town is separated from the main land by a marshy lake five Italian miles broad, and from three to six feet deep. The city is said to be a little more than two miles long, one and a half broad, and six in circumference. It is divided into two nearly equal parts by a great canal about 1200 yards long, and 100 feet wide, which winds through it, and is crossed by the celebrated bridge of the Rialto, of a single arch. Many other canals intersect the city, and these are crossed by from 450 to 500 bridges, most of which are of stone. The inhabitants are conveyed through the city in gondolas, and by means of small boats. Merchandize is deposited at the very doors of the warehouse. The quarter north of the great canal is divided into three, namely, the Sestiere de Castello, the Sestiere de San Marco, and the Sestiere de Canareggio. The quarter to the south of the great canal is divided into the Sestiere de St. Paolo, de St. Croce, and de Dorso Duro.

The streets in Venice are in general only from four to six feet wide, with the exception of that of Merceiria, which contains shops of every kind, and which is from 12 to 20 feet wide. The only square in Venice is the Piazzi de San Marco, an irregular quadrangle, 280 feet long and 100 broad, and containing several handsome buildings. The south range of buildings called the Procuratie Nuovo, was begun in the year 1587, and occupied by the Procuratore di San Marco, officers next in dignity to the doge. It is now the residence of the Austrian governor, and contains some of the public offices. The west side was built by the French after the revolution, and contains the grand entrance of state and ball room, erected on the site of the church of St. Genevieve, which Bonaparte ordered to be pulled down for that purpose. The north side of the square, called the Procuratie Vecchie, is older than the rest, and is inhabited by private individuals. A continued arcade runs round three sides of the square, containing coffee-houses and all kinds of shops. The principal entrance to the square is on the north side under the Clock Tower. This tower has a fine astronomical clock, and is terminated with a bell and two colossal bronze figures, which strike the hours and quarters. The east side of the square is terminated by the celebrated church of St. Mark, and a small square called the Place of Flowers. The pavement of this square is elevated in the centre to protect a well for supplying the

city with rain water. In front are two lions sculp tured in beautiful red marble from the island of Zea, and placed here in commemoration of a plot to destroy the Republic. The conspirators met in this square, and a woman running hastily to the window to see what was going on, overturned a flowerpot which struck the ringleader Tripolo on the head and killed him on the spot. Regarding this as an act of divine vengeance the conspirators fled.

Opposite the church of St. Mark are three lofty flag-staffs raised on finely wrought bronze vases. They were placed there to commemorate the conquest of the Morea, Epirus and Candia, and the flags of these countries were in the days of the republic hoisted upon them during the public festivals. The Piazetta is an open space extending from St. Marks to the sea. On the east side of it is the ducal palace, or that of the doge, an extensive Gothic building, with many splendid apartments and fine paintings. The offices of police are in this building, and the Austrian main-guard is stationed in that part of it called the Broglio. Opposite to the ducal palace is the public library, an elegant building of one story, elevated upon an arcade, and ornamented with white marble statues on the parapet. Behind this building is the Zecca or mint, which fronts the water. The two grand columns at the end of the Piazetta, next the sea, are of Egyptian granite, and were brought from Greece about 1206. A third fell into the water and was lost. On one column stands a winged lion in bronze, and on the other a bronze statue of St. Theodore standing upon a crocodile. The lion was removed by the French and placed upon the Hotel des Invalides at Paris, but it was restored to Venice at the general peace. In the time of the republic criminals were executed between these pillars.

The church of St. Mark, once only the church of the palace, is now the principal one in the city. It was begun in 829, but being burnt down was rebuilt in 976. The interior is entirely covered with Mosaic pictures in stained glass on a gold ground, which are reckoned inferior only to those of St. Peter's at Rome. The altars and columns are of the richest marble, and likewise the tesselated pavement. The centre front consists of 10 arches, five above and five below, the lower ones being supported by two rows of columns, 292 in number, some being of porphyry, others of verd antique, and the rest of fine marble, all of them trophies of the Venetian conquests. The upper centre arch is terminated by a colossal statue of St. Mark, and above the lower one are placed the celebrated Grecian horses of Corinthian brass, said to be the work of Lysippus. These horses are supposed to have stood successively on the triumphal arches of Augustus, Domitian, Trajan, and Constantine, the latter of whom removed them, with the chariot of the sun, and placed them in the Hippodrome. In 1206, when the Venetians took the city, they carried them to Venice, where they stood above the grand entrance to St. Mark 600 years, The French took them to Paris in 1797, and placed them on the triumphal arch in the place de Carousel; but they were returned to their rightful owners in 1815.

The Campienello, or bell tower, stands opposite to the church. It is 300 feet high. The ascent to the bells is by inclined planes, and from the gallery there is one of the grandest views in Venice. At the base of the Campienello is the Logetta, a small, though beautiful marble building.

The houses in Venice are generally gloomy and defective in accommodation. Ordinary buildings are of brick covered with wood, and the general height is three or four stories. The principal man. sions of the great families are the palaces of the Balbi, Canaro, Barbarigo, Grassi, Farsetti, &c. One of the principle churches beside that of St. Mark, is that of St. Maria della Salute, designed by Palladio, and built wholly of marble. It contains several fine pictures by Titian; that of Il Redemptore, in the island of Giudecca, is very elegant. The ca thedral of St. Peter stands on an island at the east end of the city, and is built of Istrian marble. The church of St. Georgia Maggiore, in the island of the same name, is the work of Palladio, and is one of the most beautiful in Venice. The church of S. S. Giovanni e Paolo is the Westminster Abbey of Venice, and contains the tombs of its great men. It is a large Gothic structure, and contains the martyrdom of St. Peter by Titian, which was carried off to the Louvre, but was replaced in 1815. Near this church is a fine building with elegant halls, called the school of St. Mark, opposite to which is a bronze equestrian statue of de Bergamo, the Venetian general. Venice has eight theatres, the newest and most elegant of which is the La Fenice. The assembly rooms contiguous to it are large and handsome. The arsenal is a magnificent building, situated on an island near the eastern end of the city. It is defended by a rampart, and before its gates are two huge pillars, with the two gigantic lions in granite which once stood on the Piræus at Athens.

The trade of Venice was at its height in the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries, but even then it probably did not exceed that of Liverpool. Though enormously diminished, it is still considerable, particularly with the Levant, the produce of which it transmits to other countries, while it supplies the Levant with groceries, Dutch and German linens, &c. dried and salted fish, &c. The manufactures of Venice consist of woollens, serges, canvas and ropes, velvets, gold and silver embroideries, silk stockings, and lace. The mirrors and turpentine of Venice are celebrated every where. Printing is carried on to a considerable extent.

There is at Venice an academy of the fine arts, an athenæum, and an academy for general education, a school of navigation, and an establishment like a foundling hospital, called the Rio de Pieta, for educating in all kinds of employments one hundred young women. Music has always been the principal study; on Sundays they give concerts in their church, when the girls sing and play upon every kind of instrument. On the small island of Lazarus there is an Armenian seminary, with a large library and printing office where a newspaper is published.

The chief promenades are the square of St. Mark; the gardens and the convent of St. Georgio Mag

giore, the New Quay and the garden of the Count ess de Savorgnan.

The history of Venice has been sufficiently noticed in that of the other states of Europe. It is now under the dominion of Austria, by whom it is treated with great indulgence. Population about 120,000. Lon. of St. Mark 12° 20′ 59′′ E. North Lat. 5° 25' 32". See Kuttner's Travels, chap. xxiv.; Eustace's Travels, vol. ii. p. 67; Mayer's Beschreebung von Venedig. Leipz. 1790, and Arndt's Travels, tom. 1.

VENTILATION OF MINES. See MINES, Vol. XIV. p. 386–399.

VENTRILOQUISM, See ACOUSTICS, Vol. I. p. 179, SCIENCE, Curiosities in, Vol. XVI. p. 592, Edinburgh Journal of Science, No. XVIII. p, 241, 252, and Stewart's Philosophy of the Human Mind, vol. iii. p. 229.

VENUS. See ASTRONOMY, Index.

VERA CRUZ, PROVINCE OF. See MEXICO, Vol. XIII. p. 193.

VERA CRUZ, the great sea-port town of Mexico, is a beautiful city regularly built, and with straight and spacious streets. It stands on a parched plain, covered with hills of sand from 30 to 40 feet high, which are constantly changing their position. The town is encircled with a parapet wall surmounted with a wooden pallisade. All the houses are built with materials drawn from the bottom of the sea. Water is obtained by digging nine or ten feet into the sand, but as it is very bad, an aqueduct was begun and carried on at great expense, but has not yet been completed.

The harbour, which is not commodious, is defended by two redoubts. At the distance of 800 yards, is an islet with the fortified castle of St. Juan D'Ulloa, containing 300 pieces of cannon. About 30 ships of war, or 100 merchant vessels might anchor here in from four to ten fathoms of water.

An account of the trade, &c. of Vera Cruz has already been fully given in our article MEXICO, Vol. XIII. p. 193, &c. Population 16,000. W. Lon. 100° 49' 15", N. Lat. 19° 11′ 52".

VERDE, ISLANDS AND CAPE. Cape Verde is a considerable cape stretching into the Atlantic, and forming the most western point of Africa. It gives name to the Cape Verde islands, which are ten in number, three large ones, St. Jago, St. Antonio, and St. Nicholas, and seven small ones, viz. Mayo, Bona Vista, Sal, St. Vincent, St. Lucia, Brava, and Fogo. These islands are very imperfectly known. They are said to consist chiefly of volcanic matter, and the island of Fogo contains an active volcano. The governor general resides in Jago at Port Praya. Mayo is celebrated for its sea-salt. St. Vincent, which is thirty miles in circuit, is uninhabited. The Portuguese inhabitants are very few and very poor, and the negro and mulatto slaves are to a considerable degree independent. See BONAVISTA, Vol. III. p. 653.

VERDEN, a province of Hanover, containing 520 square miles, and a population of 23,000, all Lutherans. The chief town, Verden, is a small place with almost no manufactures, and a population of 3000.

VERMES. See ZOOPHYTOLOGY, in this volume.

169

VERMONT.

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This state extends in Lat. from 42° 44' at the south-eastern angle to 45°, or through 136 minutes of Lat. or within an inconsiderable fraction of 157 statute miles. Measured carefully on the best maps the area is rather above than below 8600 square miles; the mean breadth will consequently be about 55 miles.

Though not so represented on most maps of that state, there are two distinct chains of mountains which traverse it in its greatest length. These chains were noticed under the head of mountains, and were there shown to be the continuation of the Blue Ridge and South-east mountains. The mountains of Vermont received their French name from the dense forests of evergreen laurel and terebinthine trees which clothe their slopes, valleys, and most of their summits. The name was extended to the country, and is rendered permanent by being given to the state.

By reference to Table XV. Art. UNITED STATES, or the route of the Massachusetts and Hudson rail-road, the elevation of the two mountain chains are given before their entrance into Vermont. These chains rather rise than depress in leaving Massachusetts. If, however, we examine Vermont as a physical section, from the sources and respective slope of its river valleys, we find the state composed of two inclined plains, but of very unequal breadth and rapidity of descent. The bases of these plains are the Connecticut river on the east, and Lake Champlain on the west. By turning to Table XVI. Art. UNITED STATES, it will be seen, that the surface of Lake Champlain is only 90 feet above the ocean tides; and by Table XVII, Art. UNITED STATES, if we compare the elevation of Connecticut river, 73 feet at the influx of Miller's river, with the general rise of that river channel, we shall find that the south-eastern angle of Vermont is very nearly of equal elevation with its north-western border on Lake Champlain. But VOL. XVIII.-PART I.

the Connecticut channel rises so much as to be 1028 feet above the ocean level at Canaan in Essex county, near the extreme north-eastern angle of Vermont. From these elements, it is evident that the arable surface of that state along its northern border, has a general declivity of about 1000 feet in 90 miles, equal to 11 feet per mile. This conjugate declivity is very unequally distributed. The state is divided into sub-valleys, which, to expose with more precision, we survey from south to north. The south-western angle of the state, commensurate with the county of Bennington, gives source to Batten Kill and Hoosack rivers, which flow westward into the Hudson river; and also, in its northern part, to the extreme sources of Paulet and Otter rivers, flowing N.N.W. into Lake Champlain.

Otter entirely overheads Paulet, the former rising on the central valley between the two main chains, and flowing northwards, between them, to about half its course, breaks through the western, and, inclining to N. N. W., falls into Lake Champlain, after a comparative course of 70 miles. The Otter river is followed, on the same plain, by three other confluents of Lake Champlain-Onion, La Moelle, and Mississque rivers. Onion and La Moelle, something more brief than Otter in length of course, rise also in the slopes and vales of the eastern chain, and traverse the western, in their way to their final recipient. To the sources of the Otter, Onion, and La Moelle, are opposed the more brief streams that fall into Connecticut river. Of these Deerfield river, though rising in Vermont, flows southwardly into Massachusetts, and in the latter bends to the eastward, and meets its recipient at the bottom of the great bend below the mouth of Miller's river. With courses generally to the south-east, beside innumerable creeks, are to the northward from Deerfield, West, Black, Waterquechy, White, Watts, and Wells rivers. All these named flowing from the eastern Vermont chain, and fall into Connecticut river below the mouth of Passumpsic. At the latter point, the western slope of the Connecticut basin is so narrow, that it is not above twelve direct miles to the extreme sources of either Onion or La Moelle rivers. The western slope of Connecticut widens with the Passumpsic, but again narrows to not above six miles at the extreme north-eastern angle of Vermont. The peculiar structure of the Passumpsic valley, and its connexion with the Memphramagog valley, may be seen by reference to the head of Connecticut basin, and Table XVII., article UNITED STATES.

Lake Memphramagog, with its numerous confluents, may, in some respects, be regarded as an anomaly in the geography of Vermont. The lake itself, extending to 25 miles in length, with a mean width of perhaps two miles, and with about one-third of its length in Vermont, receives its confluents from

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