held in the right hand of the man who guides it, who at the same time uses a lash with his left hand. Another machine is drawn by one horse in front of this plough, having a crooked iron like a reaping hook attached to it, to cut the ground, so that the plough may turn it up with greater facility. The number of men and horses requisite to keep this plough going, makes it very expensive; for it requires one man to direct the plough, another to lead the horses, one to direct the iron for cutting the ground before the plough, and another to lead the horse harnessed to it. Some of the gentlemen farmers have discarded these rude machines, and have introduced the improved plough; but the most common mode of turning up the ground, is with an instrument called the cascroim or crooked spade. Harvest generally begins about September, and is completed about the end of October. They begin to manure the ground early in winter, continuing at this occupation until seed time. On the patches of arable ground set apart to them from year to year, they raise crops of barley, oats, and potatoes. In years of scarcity, the people live much on the dried roots of the potentilla anserina, growing in all the pastures in great plenty. The number of carts in Uist is very trifling; the common mode of transportation is on horses' backs.

From the constant employment of the people in kelp-making, and in cultivating with great toil the little spots of ground, the fisheries on the coasts, which might be rendered such a source of wealth to the inhabitants, are in a great measure abandoned to adventurers from other parts of the kingdom. The population in North Uist may be widely estimated at about 4000, who are almost all protestants. In South Uist, there are about 5000 inhabitants, of which latter number about five-sixths are Roman Catholics. The people are in general sober, industrious, and acute, and so full of curiosity, as to be inquisitive to a degree bordering on impertinence, or at least having that appearance to strangers. They are for the most part honest and peaceable; all their little quarrels are determined before the baron bailie, with whose decisions they remain perfectly satisfied. Gaelic is the language generally spoken.

The climate of Uist is so variable, that it is not uncommon to have frost, snow, sleet, and deluges of rain, all in the course of a few hours: wet wea ther however predominates.

Little or nothing is as yet known of the mineralogy or botany of these islands. There are no trees, and even bushes will not rise higher than the wall which protects them. Game of all kinds abound, as well as all sorts of sea fowl; birds of prey are also numerous, particularly ravens (corvus corax), which at particular seasons come in such flocks, that they literally cover the country. fresh water lakes are full of remarkably fine trout (salmo fario). The sea fish are herrings (clupea harengus), ling (gadus molva), cod (gadus morhua), mackerel (scomber scomber), turbot (pleuronectes maximus), skate (raia batis), and flounders (pleuronectes flesus); also great variety of shell fish.

The

The basking shark (squalus maximus), is often killed on these coasts by the inhabitants, for the valuable oil produced by the liver.

Druidical circles are numerous all over Uist. Danish signal forts, built without cement, are very frequently met with: some of these are situated on rocks in the middle of the fresh water lakes, and are accessible from the shore by a causeway raised almost to a level with the water.

The island of Eriskay lies a little to the south of the extremity of South Uist; and a little to the S. and W. is Barray or Barra, (see that article,) with its attendant islands Flodday, Hellesay, Gigay, Watersay, Sanderay, Pabbay, Mengelay, and Berneray, all inhabited, and from one to three miles in extent. The productions of these islands are in every respect similar to those of Barra and Uist. See Macdonald's Agricultural Survey of the Hebribes, and Macculloch's Description of the Western Islands.

VITRIFIED FORTS. In our article FORTS, Vitrified, giving an account of these singular remains, we promised to state in this part of our work, whether any thing new had been discovered, throwing additional light on the subject equally interesting and obscure. We were surprised by what has been published by Dr. M'Culloch since our article appeared, because we could not have believed it possible, that any author could allow statements to go before the world which could be so very easily contradicted. A long time did not elapse when Sir G. S. Mackenzie, to whom Dr. M. very pointedly, though not very correctly alluded, published a letter to Sir Walter Scott on the subject, in which, ironically we presume, he endeavoured to prove that Dr. M. knew nothing of his theory. In this letter we find not only an exposure of Dr. M'Culloch's misrepresentations of what was stated in our former article, every word of which in regard to fact has been amply confirmed, but some additional information. Since our last article was written, we visited Barryhill in Strathmore. There are no vitrifications on the summit, only the remains of a rampart of loose stones, and of divisions within the area. But it is remarkable that vitrified stones, similar in all respects to those found elsewhere, are to be seen below. The stone of the hill is sandstone, of which the defences of the upper area are constructed, but the vitrified masses are primitive rock. The hill of Dunsinane, or Macbeth's Castle, in the same quarter, is a vitrified fort. It has been reported to us by a gentleman who visited Dun Sniochan, that Dr. M'Culloch's account of it is altogether incorrect. A great number of hill forts have been discovered, some with and some without vitrifications, on the Beauly, and the Glasswater in Inverness-shire, by Sir G. S. Mackenzie, as described in his letter above referred to. One in Ross-shire on the Ord hill of Kessock was subsequently discovered by Mr. George Anderson, secretary to the Northern Institution. This is defended by a mass of loose stones, not vitrified, while the melted masses are on the slope of the summit, where it is evident they could not have

been intended as ramparts. Vitrified masses have been recently found by Dr. John Home on the hill of Cowdenknows near Earlstoun. At the request of Sir G. S. Mackenzie, Mr. Fraser of Lovat directed the summit of the hill of Dun Lion to be examined by making a cut across it. Charcoal and burnt bones of ruminating animals were found in considerable quantities, but nothing else that seemed to throw any light on this curious subject. One additional argument against Lord Woodhouselee's theory is found in the fact of the ramparts of loose unvitrified stones, appearing at what we suppose to have been the entrance, or least defensible part. This, probably, would be the first to have been set fire to, had it been constructed of sand stone. Some further discoveries must be made before any thing approaching to freedom from objection can be offered. We must, therefore, still refer to the questions proposed at the conclusion of our former article. See Letter to Sir Walter Scott, Bart., containing Observations on Vitrified Forts, &c. by Sir G. S. Mackenzie; published by Waugh & Innes, Edinburgh, 1824; and the article FORTS, Vitrified. VITRIOL. See CHEMISTRY, Vol. V.

VITRUVIUS, M. POLLIO, a celebrated writer on architecture, is supposed to have lived in the reigns of Julius Cæsar and Augustus. Formia is believed to have been his birth-place. His work on architecture was translated into English by Mr. Newton in 1791; but the most magnificent edition is that which was some years ago published by W. Wilkins, Jun., F.R.S. in two parts, royal folio.

ULSTER, county of New York, bounded S. by Orange; S.W. and W. by Sullivan; N. W. by Delaware county; N. by the Catsberg chain separating it from Greene; and E. by Hudson river separating it from Duchess. The outline is rather irregular, but the mean length from north to south is about 40 miles, whilst the mean breadth iş near 30; the area 1200 square miles. Extending in Lat. from 41° 35′ to 42° 09', and in Lon. from 2o 09′ to 3o E. from W.C. The general declivity of this very diversified country is from the west to east towards the Hudson valley. Except the adjacent county Greene, there is perpaps no other county in the United States which differs so much in relative height and variety of feature as Ulster. Though on the northern side, the boundary does not reach the high summits of the Catsbergs, still many parts of Ulster must rise to at least 1500 feet above tide water in Hudson.

The surface is every where most delightfully decorated with hill, dale and plain; but the most remarkable feature is the peculiar, and now united vallies of Walkill, Rondout, and Esopus creeks. The extreme source of Walkill is in Sussex county, New Jersey, from which it flows N.N. W. into Orange county, New York; and again sustaining the original course, enters, and traversing Ulster, falls

into the Hudson river nearly opposite the town of Rhinebeck in Duchess county.

The Rondout, or northwestern branch of Walkill, rises in the eastern side of Sullivan and western of Ulster, unites with the Walkill in the latter. The Esopus creek rises in the northwestern angle of Ulster, and flowing first to the northwestward, directly towards the Walkill, until reaching within two or three miles of the junction of the latter with the Rondout. Thence the Esopus bends nearly at right angles, and assuming a northeastern course continues that direction to its entrance into the Hudson at Saugerties.

Though amid groups and chains of mountains, a continuous valley extends from the Delaware river along the valley of the Nevesink, and along the Rondout and Esopus to the Hudson. It is along

this remarkable vale that now extends the Hudson and Delaware canal.

Advancing from the Delaware, this canal extends to the northeastward, entire length 64 miles; rising from the Delaware 80 feet, and falling from the summit level 535 feet to tide water in Hudson.

The course of the Hudson and Delaware canal in Ulster, demonstrates the peculiar structure of the country. Leaving the summit level, between the sources of some creeks of Nevesink, and those of Rondout, it thence follows the latter to near Mombacus. Here it is taken from the valley of Walkill into that of Esopus, and again along the latter to near Kingston, where it is returned into the valley of Walkill, and down the latter to its final junction with the Hudson at Eddyville.

The Hudson and Delaware canal may be regarded as continued in the Lackawaxen canal, and forming a navigable connexion between the Delaware and Hudson rivers, and into the rich coal district of Pennsylvania on the heads of Lackawaxen and Tunkhannoc rivers.

By the post list of 1831, there were 24 post offices in Ulster. These were at Kingston, the county seat, and at Accord, Brunswyck, Daslville Falls, Ellenville, Esopus, Lattintown, Libertyville, Malden, Marbletown, Marlborough, Milton, Modena, New Paltz, New Paltz Landing, Plattekill, Rosendale, Saugerties, Shandaken, Shawangunk, Tuthill, Ulsterville, Wawarsing and Woodstock.

Kingston, the seat of justice, stands on a plain between the Esopus and Walkill creeks, two miles westward from Rhinebeck ferry, by post road 93 miles very nearly due north from the city of New York, and 58 miles a very little west of south from Albany. N. Lat. 41° 55', and Lon. 3o E. from W.C. Kingston, though adorned by many modern buildings, contains remains which attest the style of its founders the Dutch, and in the industrious habits of its existing residents, and the fine appearance of the adjacent well cultivated country, also appear the moral relics of those ancestors.

A cursory glance would naturally inspire very unfavourable impressions of the soil of Ulster, but

its numerous towns, and the aspect of its orchards, meadows and fields, would correct the error.

In 1820, the population amounted to 30,934, or to nearly 26 to the square mile.

UNICORN, SEA. See Cetology, Vol. V. p. 567. UNION, county of Pennsylvania, bounded by Mifflin S. and S.W.; by Centre W.; by White Deer Mountain separating it from Lycoming N.; and by Susquehannah river separating it from Northumberland E. The greatest length of this county is by a line nearly from S. to N. parallel to the general course of the Susquehannah river, 31 miles; mean breadth 22, and area 682 square miles. Extending in Lat. from 40° 39' to 41° 05', and in Lon. from 0° 08' E. to 0° 22′ W. from W.C.

The mountain chains which traverse this county are humble when compared with those of some adjacent counties, and have but a slight inclination towards northeast and southwest, from extending east and west. The general declivity, shown by the course of the creeks, which flow over it into Susquehannah river, is to the east. The principal of these creeks, advancing from south to north, are Western Mahantango, Middle Creek, Penn's Creek, Buffalo and White Deer creeks.

The soil in quality and distribution, partakes of the character of that of other mountainous counties of Pennsylvania, and much in Union is excellent. In 1820, the population amounted to 18,619, and had increased to 20,749 in 1830, showing an augmentation of between 11 and 12 per cent. in the intermediate ten years.

In 1831, there were in this county post offices at New Berlin the seat of justice, and at Beavertown, Freeburg, Hartleton, Lewisburg, Mac Kees Half Falls, Middleburg, Mifflinburg, Mount Pleasant Mills, New Columbia, and Selin's Grove.

New Berlin, the seat of justice, stands on the north and left bank of Penn's Creek, by post road 168 miles almost due N. from W. C. and 60 a little W. of N. from Harrisburg. N. Lat. 40° 52'.

UNION, district of South Carolina, bounded by Newberry S.; by Ennoree river separating it from Laurens, S.W.; by Spartanburgh W. and N. W.; and by Broad river, separating it from York, N.E.; Chester E.; and Fairfield S.E. The greatest length of Union district is 40 miles from the extreme southern angle on Ennoree to the northern on Broad river. The greatest breadth is about 23, but the mean breadth about 16, and area, 640 square miles. Extending in Lat. from 34° 25′ to 35° 03', and in Lon. from 4° 28' to 4° 52′ W. from W.C.

The declivity of this district to something to the E. of S. E., and is traversed by Tyger and Pacolet rivers, and by numerous creeks, all having Broad river as a common recipent. The soil is generally good. Population 1820, 14, 126.

By the post office list of 1831, there were offices at Unionville, the seat of justice, and at Brown's Creek, Cedar Grove, Cross Keys, Fishdam, Goshen Hill, Gowely's Store, Hancock, Jonesville, Mac Bridesville, Meansville, Oak Grove, Pinckneyville, and Reidstown.

Unionville, the seat of justice, is situated on a small branch of Fair Forest Creek, 30 miles a lit

tle E. of N. E. from Laurensville, and by post road 77 miles N. W. by W. from Columbia. N. Lat. 34° 42', and Lon. 4° 38′ W. from W. C.

UNION, county of Ohio, bounded by Franklin S.E.; Madison S.; Champaign S. W.; Logan W.; Hardin N. W.; Marion N.E.; and Delaware E. Length from south to north 30, width 17, and area 510 square miles. Extending in Lat. from 40° 06' to 40° 30', and in Lon. 6° 14' to 6° 34' W. from W.C.

The slope of this county is southeastward, and drained in that direction by several creeks which are finally discharged into Sciota river.

There were in 1831, by the post office list, but two offices in this county besides that at Marysville the county seat; these were Darby Creek, and Milford Centre.

Marysville, the seat of justice, is situated on Mill Creek, by post road 37 miles N. W. from Columbus. N. Lat. 40° 15', Lon. 6° 24′ W. from W.c.

The

UNION, county of Illinois, bounded N. by Jackson; N.E. by Franklin; E: by Johnson; S. by Alexander; and W. by Mississippi river separating it from Cape Girardeau county of Missouri. two eastern angles of this county are right angles, and of course the northern and southern sides are parallel. The breadth is 18 miles, and the mean length from east to west being 22, the area is 396 square miles. Extending in Lat. from 37° 21' to 37° 37' N. and in Lon. from 12° 07′ to 12° 35′ W. from W.C.

Though having the Mississippi river for its western boundary, Union county of Illinois is a real table land, with the creeks issuing in every direction from its centre. Population 2362 in 1820.

By the post list of 1831, it contains but two post offices; one at Jonesboro', the county seat, and one at Mount Pleasant.

Jonesboro', the seat of justice, is situated on the central table land, about 35 miles a very little W. of N. from the junction of Ohio and Mississippi rivers, and by post road, 154 miles a little W. of S. from Vandalia.

UNION, county of Kentucky, bounded by Henderson N.E. and E.; by Tradewater river, separating it from Hopkins, S. E., and Livingston S.W.; and by Ohio river, separating it from Gallatin county of Illinois, W., and Posey county in Indiana, N. Length from south to north 42 miles, mean width 18, and area 756 square miles; extending in Lat. from 37° 23′ to 37° 52' N., and in Lon. from 10° 44′ to 11° 15' W. from W.C. Population in 1820, 3470.

In 1831, there were post offices in this county at Morganfield, the county seat, and at Bordley, Cypress, Mount Zion, Raleigh, and Sulphur Springs.

Morganfield, the seat of justice, is situated in a direct line about 12 miles S. E. from the junction of Ohio and Wabash rivers, by post road 205 miles, rather N. of S. W. by W. from Frankfort. North Lat. 37° 41'. Lon. 11° W. from W.C.

UNIONTOWN, post village, borough, and seat of justice, Fayette county, Pennsylvania, situated on both sides of Redstone creek, 12 miles S. E. from Brownsville, 45 miles S. S.E. from Pittsburgh, and

UNI

by post road 193 miles N.W. by W. from W.C.; 184 miles a little S. of W. from Harrisburg, and 284 miles very nearly due W. from Philadelphia. North Lat. 390 54'. Lon. 2° 45′ W. from W.C. This borough was founded in 1775, by Jacob and Henry Beeson. It is ranged in great part in a single but compactly built street, along the United States road. The adjacent country is rolling, and very pleasant to the eye, and the western chain of

the Appalachian mountains, rising at four miles distance, the landscape in that direction is picturesque and lengthened.

Uniontown, in the early part of its existence, increased rapidly towards that extent that could be supported from the adjacent country. This gives to the place at present a look of age which is not usual in the central towns of the United States. In 1820, the population was about 1200.

MILES.

3000

600

560

2300

1000

1850

UNITED STATES, an extensive country of North America, having the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Pacific Ocean on the west, the British territories or Cabotia on the north, Russian America on the northwest, the Mexican provinces on the southwest, the Gulf of Mexico south, and the archipelago of the West Indies southeast.

Without pretending to absolute accuracy, the following outlines will show the great frontier lines.

In common with Cabotia, from the mouth of
St. Croix river to the Rocky or Chippe-
wayan mountains,
With Russian North America, from the Chip-
pewayan mountains to the Pacific Ocean,
Along Pacific Ocean, from the Russian limit,
North Lat. 51°, to that of Mexico, North
Lat. 42°,

In common with the republic of Mexico, from
North Lat. 42° on the Pacific Ocean, along
that curve of latitude to the Chippewayan
mountains, and thence to the mouth of the
Sabine into the Gulf of Mexico,
Along the Gulf of Mexico to Florida Point,
Along the Atlantic Ocean to the mouth of St.
Croix,

4 to 7 W. & 12 to 17 W.

33,754

6,450

3 to 5 W.

10,847

5,562

It ought to be carefully remembered, that the data on which Table I. was constructed were used without reference to minute fractions, If, indeed, the entering and retiring angles were disregarded, and the outlines assumed as regular curves or straight lines, as the case might be, the actual area of the United States might be assumed at two millions of square miles; or, if taken comparatively, at the one-twentieth part of the habitable land area of

the earth.

In the construction of this article, we shall first take a succinct view of the general structure and most prominent physical features; secondly, a view of the climate; thirdly, survey the political subdivisions; and fourthly and lastly, give a sketch of its history. In the latter section will be included the most prominent and important principles of the United States' constitution, and of those of the individual states.

PART I.-PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

This article being a continuation, or more correctly a supplement to section United States, under the head of AMERICA, in the first volume of the Encyclopædia, the reader is referred to that part of the work for much matter necessary to a comprehensive view of the subject.

Taken in its utmost extent, as given in Table I., the territory of the United States extends, in latitude from Thompson's Island, 24° 30′ N. to 48° 2′ on the northern part of Maine, as laid down on Tanner's map; but to N. Lat. 51° on the Pacific ocean;* or perhaps more correctly, to Vancouver's Sound, Lat. 54°.

The most easterly point in the United States is on the eastern side of Manan Island, off Passamaquoddy Bay, 10° 20' E. from W.C., and the most westerly point, if the latitude is extended to 54°, will be on the northwestern coast of Queen Charlotte's Island, 56° W. from W.C. These geographical limits give an extent of twenty-nine and a half degrees of latitude, and sixty-six and one-third degrees of longitude.

The longest line that can be drawn in the extensive regions included in the preceding outlines, and over land without intersecting any sea, would be from the Atlantic coast at Cape Connaveral, North Lat. 28° 20′, Lon. 3° 25′ W. to the northern end of Queen Charlotte's Island, say North Lat. 54°, Lon. 56° W. from W.C. This line would deflect from the meridians by an angle of 56° 28', and measure a fraction above 3214 statute miles. Based upon this diagonal, the mean breadth is 664 very nearly. The whole territory is equal to an immense square of about 1460 miles each side.

Combined into one view, the United States' territory comprises four, or part of four vast inclined planes. These great planes are the descents from two systems of mountains, which, in relation to contiguous oceans, might have been very correctly

called the Atlantic and Pacific systems. Rising from the Atlantic, and in the first part near that ocean, by a very moderate ascent, swells a plain, which gradually breaking into hills, finally terminates in a system of mountains. This system, designated by some writers "the Appalachian," but more generally "the Alleghany Mountains." To the latter name, there is an insuperable objection, as a generic term; that objection is, that the same term, Alleghany, is applied to one of the minor chains. Therefore, to avoid confusion of names, the eastern or Atlantic system of mountains will, in this treatise, be designated Appalachian.

If the structure of that part of North America between the deep gulfs of Mexico and those which compose Hudson's bay and Davis' straits was carefully and scientifically examined, it would be very probably found, that the Appalachian system of mountains is not confined to the United States, nor limited to the extent usually assigned to it on even our best maps. But, as correctly known, this system appears to rise in lateral chains, and to form the base of an immense continental protuberance, elongated from southwest to northeast, and maintaining a course in general accordance with that of the adjacent Atlantic coast. On the southwest, towards the gulf of Mexico, the Appalachian chains rise imperceptibly from the general level of the country; but it is a common and great error to suppose these mountains to be confounded with the hills. Though at the extremes, and particularly at that of the southwest, the Appalachian chains sink gradually; these chains are every where, if at all visible, utterly distinct from those remains of abrasion by water, called hills. If we suppose the whole Appalachian region to have once formed a gradual and regular protuberance, without any valley or hill, and then suppose this parabolic surface exposed to the action of water, hills and valleys must be the necessary production; but this, nor any ordinary known operation of nature, by the agency of water, will tend to form a mountain. The action of water may, and no doubt does, by wearing away and displacing the soil, expose mountain masses. latter operation is yet in progress, as may be seen by a cursory survey; but the effect is very different from what would be requisite to form a mountain.

This

A long and careful examination of the rivers entirely round the Appalachian region, first suggested to the writer a suspicion that the mountains which compose the nucleus of this system were deeply laid in the earth, and that what is in common language called "the mountains," were only prominent ridges emerging from the surface. The Chippewayan region I have never had means to examine, but from analogy am inclined to the induction, that there also, if examined, the laws of structure would be found similar to those which regulated the Appalachian system. With these preliminary remarks, we proceed to a general physical view.

It has already been remarked, that the United