dago or Oswego river. It is a mixed navigation of 38 miles, composed of canals and dams.

Cayuga and Seneca canal was formed from the outlet of one of these lakes to the other. As every reader may not be fully acquainted with the topography of this part of New York, it may be necessary to state, that the two lakes of Seneca and Cayuga extend not far from north and south and of nearly equal length 36 miles. At their head of southern extremity they are 18 miles asunder, but gradually incline towards each other so as to leave between them an interval of only about nine miles. Both are discharged at the northern extremity. The route of the Seneca, the western and most elevated, bending to the eastward from the point of discharge about twelve miles, joins the outlet of Cayuga, and inflecting to northward nine miles is crossed by the Erie canal at Montezuma. Both lakes are deep and navigable, therefore, to open their bosoms to the Erie canal became an early object of attention, the instant the latter work was so far advanced as to secure its final completion. An act of the legislature of New York was passed 20th April 1821, directing the prosecution of the Cayuga and Seneca Canal, and early in 1829 it became navigable.

The connexion between the Seneca and Cayuga lakes by a navigable canal once effected, naturally suggested the Chenango Canal, to connect the Ontario and Susquehanna basins.

Many other branch canals have been projected to unite with the Erie canal, but as far as our information extends, the preceding is the only one in progress.

Passing the Hudson, we arrive at the great physical section of New England. Since the article NAVIGATION INLAND was published, though the subject of canals has excited very active interest, the general exertions have been made to meliorate natural channels. To the preceding observation, the execution of the Farmington and Blackstone canals are important exceptions.

Farmington canal was suggested by the peculiar structure of that part of Connecticut over which the canal has been constructed. In that part of this article describing Connecticut basin, we noticed the small basin of Wallingford, at the southern extremity of which stands the city of New Haven. Under the head of mountains we also noticed the chain which extends from New Haven northwards and reaching Connecticut river at Northampton in Massachusetts. To the westward of this chain extends a valley nearly parallel to, but considerably elevated above, the Connecticut river, and stretching from the plain of New Haven to Northampton. Farmington river rising in the south-east mountain flows S.S.E. about 40 miles until meeting with the New Haven chain, and inflected to the northwards by an acute angle. Flowing along the mountain chain 16 miles, the stream bends eastward, passes the mountain and falls into Connecticut river. As already stated, the mountain valley continues along the chain into Massachusetts. In the latter state it is traversed by Westfield river, and does not really terminate until reaching Deerfield, having a length of about 90

miles. Many parts of this mountain valley spread into alluvial plains with very slight declivity in any direction.

The legislature of Connecticut, as early as 1822, granted an act of incorporation to a company for the construction of a canal from tide water at New Haven, to the Massachusetts line, near Southwick; length near 50 miles, in direct distance. The work was commenced in September 1825. Armroyd says that "in the distance from Southwick to New Haven, about 50 miles, there will be required a ten feet lock for every three miles of canal, or nearly so." This would suppose an entire fall of 1663 feet, in 50 miles, or three feet per mile nearly.

The Farmington canal is in operation, and to be continued in Massachusetts by the Westfield and Northampton canal, and above the latter place is continued in the improvements of Connecticut river.

The latter channel is one of the most extended and important on the Atlantic slope of the United States, and in proportion to length and magnitude of obstruction has been very greatly improved, In table XVII., the rise of this river and Passumpsic are given, and under the head of Connecticut river itself, is shown the great and rapid ascent of the main stream above the influx of Passumpsic. Below the village of Barnet, at the junction of the Connecticut and Passumpsic, the river has been rendered navigable to tide water, but the works are not such in all places as to secure the full rise of the fine volume of water draining one of the most interesting basins on earth.

Several different routes of canals from both sides of the Connecticut river have been proposed, as links of connexion with the adjacent basins. To wards the Hudson, it has been proposed to carry a chain of canals and locks from the mouth of Miller's river to the city of Troy on the Hudson.

A second route from the same side has been traced, leaving Connecticut river at Windsor, in Vermont, and over the intermediate mountains to Lake Champlain, by Otter river, or by the Pultenay river to Lake Champlain, at Whitehall. Above the preceding, numerous other routes have been named and measured: the last of which is the Connecticut and Memphramagogue route, the ascents and descents of which may be seen by reference to Table XVII.

On the eastern or left side of the Connecticut basin, the most important canal work proposed, is that route designated by the Boston and Connecticut, or Chickapee canal. This latter was a link in a splendid design of uniting Boston harbour with the Erie and Champlain canals of New York. Though as first planned, this route received the name of Chickapee from an intention to pass by that river, the vested rights of the Blackstone Canal Company, and more exact surveys, induced the preference of the route by Miller's, Deerfield, and Hoosack rivers. Summit level between Boston harbour and Connecticut river, Ashburnham pond, elevated 1066 feet above low water in the harbour and 893 feet above the Connecticut river at the influx of Miller's river. These projects of canals have been abandoned.

In table XV. will be found the ascents and de

scents of a projected rail-road, to supersede the preceding canal. Indeed, recently, very few canals are projected in any section of the United States without meeting a counter rail-road project, and whilst the public mind remains in doubt which deserves the preference, the contest must operate against the advance of either. From this and many other causes no side canal has yet been undertaken, to connect the basin of the Connecticut with those adjacent on either side. A rail-road from the Connecticut to Boston will be commenced this year. Blackstone Canal from the head of Narraganset bay at Providence, to Worcester in Massachusetts, length 45 miles, and rise 444 feet, is in full operation.

Beyond the Boston and Narraganset basins some of the rivers have been farther improved, since the Article NAVIGATION INLAND was written, but no large work of connexion between the sub-basins has been undertaken; we must therefore refer to Armroyd and the public prints, for notice of incipient projects, which merely point out the routes where it may be desirable or practicable to form a canal or road; and return to our survey of what has been performed.

What has been actually completed on the Atlantic slope, and in the cases of New York and Pennsylvania, the extensions made into the great Canadian basin by the former, and into the Ohio valley by the latter, may well excite astonishment, but if all things are considered and liberally compared, the two great canals of the state of Ohio are the most stupendous undertakings ever achieved on the face of nature by man. Forty years ago the writer of this article saw the ground now comprising that state a wilderness. It is only a few days past 40 years since the United States army was defeated by savages on the very section of this youthful state, where now an artificial canal is navigated. It is really difficult to avoid excursions of fancy on such a subject, but the nature of our subject forces us back to matters of fact.

The Ohio state canals were projected about 1823, and may now, 1831, be regarded as completed, or so nearly so, as to admit a notice admitting their completion.

The Miami canal commences at Cincinnati, and extends north-north-eastwardly along the valley of the Great Miami, a total distance of 67 miles. It passes the towns of Hamilton, Middletown, Franklin and Miamisburg to Dayton, the county seat of Montgomery county. This canal is in full operation, and it is in contemplation to extend it to Lake Erie by the valleys of Miami, Miglaize and Maumee rivers. To secure this latter extension, the Con gress of the United States made a grant or grants of land to a large amount, conditioned that the Ohio canals be completed within seven years from 1828, or in 1835, and said canals to be and forever remain public high-ways, for the use of the government of the United States.

The route of the eastern Ohio canal, with its ascents and descents, is given in Table XVIII. By

VOL. XVIII.—PART I.

reference to the latter table it will be seen, that this canal commences on the Ohio river at Portsmouth, and at the mouth of Sciota river, and thence ascends the Sciota upwards of 70 miles, passing the towns of Piketon, Chillicothe and Circleville. It then, leaving the Sciota, pursues a course a little E. of N.E. to Conhocton, passing the towns of Hebron and Newark, and the summit level between the valleys of Sciota and Muskingum rivers. From Conhocton, the canal follows the valley of Tuscarawas about 100 miles to the summit level between the Ohio valley and basin of Erie. It thence finally falls rapidly 31 miles to the level of Lake Erie at Cleaveland. This great canal traverses the counties of Sciota, Pike, Ross, Pickaway, Franklin, Fairfield, Licking, Muskingum, Conhockton, Tuscarawas, Stark, Portage and Cayahoga, and may, in more than one important circumstance, be regarded as a continuation of the Erie canal. Both the Ohio canals are owned by the state.

Louisville and Portland Canal, to pass the rapids of Ohio on the Kentucky side of that stream, though a work of immense importance, is yet in itself to be classed with side canals. It may be certainly considered as the most astonishing contrast between the rivers in the basin of the Mississippi, and those on the Atlantic slope, the extreme rarity of natural obstructions in the channels of the former system of rivers, compared with the abundance of shoals, rapids and cataracts in the latter. But, amongst the rivers which compose the Mississippi system, the Ohio, with its two main constituents, the Monongahela and Alleghany, are remarkable for presenting in the Ohio itself 948 miles; and adding either of the two channels above Pittsburg, 1200 miles of a natural navigation with but one serious interruption.

The Rapids of Ohio are occasioned by a bed of limestone rock, over which the volume rolls down 22 feet in little more than two miles. To pass these rocks by a canal must have been a suggestion coeval with the navigation of the Ohio, but to complete such a work demanded population and wealth. The latter seems, however, to have increased still more rapidly than the former. According to Armroyd, page 337, the Ohio tonnage in 1823, was 19,453, and in 1828, 50,000; an increment of 257 per cent in six years. Something may no doubt be allowed for more accurate registry, as the periou advanced, but where the trade even doubled in six years, its increasing weight must of course sweep away the obstructions at the cataract near Louisville. ville. The legislature of Kentucky granted a charter, January 1825, to "The Louisville and Portland Canal Company," with a capital stock of 600,000 dollars, one sixth part of which was taken by the United States under an act of Congress. The United States by a subsequent subscription increased the stock of the Company 150,000 dollars.*

From the 6th Annual Report of this Canal Company, it appears, that on the failure of the subscription expected from the United States, the Board negotiated a loan for 100,000 dollars, and a subse

quent one for 30,000 dollars. Deducting certain property on hand, the Company now owe, therefore, about 130,000 dollars. It is known, that on the 1st of December 1830, the canal was opened; it was found to afford seven feet water throughout, being four feet more than on the falls. All the transactions of the past year have been adjusted with the contractors.

The Engineer states in his communication to the Company:

"That the experiments which have been made since the water was let into the canal by the passing of several boats, have furnished to my mind the fullest and most conclusive evidence, that the anticipations relative to the durability and utility of the work will be fully realised, and that the fears of those who, from the great and unusual width and height of the locks, have regarded it as a doubtful experiment, will be completely removed; and finally, that it is only necessary for the canal to be put into successful operation, to demonstrate its great and permanent usefulness to the community, and its peculiar and increasing value in a pecuniary point of view to the stockholders themselves. In a postscript, January 3d, 1831, the Engineer

says:

For the gratification of the stockholders, I will state, that the canal is now in operation, and that the following steam boats have passed since the date of the above Report: on the 1st inst. the steamboat Cavalier; on the 2d, the steamboat Cumberland; and on this day, the steamboats La Grange, Virginia, Gondola and Tippacanoe.*

The Ohio river above Louisville, we perceive by the foregoing notices, is open to, and connected with Lake Erie by the great canal of Ohio; a rapid advance is making to complete another connexion by the Alleghany constituent with the basins of Susquehannah and Delaware, and that by the completion of the Louisville and Portland Canal, the once formidable "Falls of Ohio," commercially speaking, will exist no more.

At the town of Beaver (situated at the mouth of the river of the same name), on the Ohio, a canal is in progress to the town of Erie on the lake, 166 miles; about 49 miles of the route in two detached parts, have been finished at the expense of the State of Pennsylvania. From the town of Meadville to Franklin, on the Alleghany, a branch of this canal is also in progress, and will perhaps be navigable in the course of the ensuing year.

With the Louisville and Portland Canal, terminate all works of the kind, of any consequence, deserving particular notice, which have been at tempted in the valley of Ohio, or basin of the Mississippi. The small canal at New Orleans from Bayou St. John's to a basin in the rear of that city, is a local work of great utility, but a detailed notice is precluded by its limited extent, and the probability of its being in great part superseded by a lock and canal navigation through the city and bayou St. John into Lake Ponchartrain.

The Delta of the Mississippi is in a state of na

ture, a net-work of interlocking channels, all of which, and lakes of all dimensions, from a mere pond to the Pontchartrain 18 by 30 miles, are shal-, low, with the exception of the channels of the Mississippi and Red rivers. The deepest passes from the Delta into the Gulf of Mexico, at mid-tide, are 12 feet, and that depth only in the two main mouths of the Mississippi. The number of intermediate cuts, which the topography of such a country admits, are indefinite, and many of them if executed, would be of great local advantage: but leaving what must be remote and contingent, we may notice one practicable work, in which are concerned the whole commercial nations of America and Europe. That is the deepening and securing a permanent channel from the south-east mouth or main outlet of the Mississippi.

In 1813 the writer of this article made an actual survey, and took the soundings in the different mouths of the Mississippi, and found invariably that the water rapidly deepened outside of each bar. At the Main Pass, when a lead could be thrown on the bank, we had 30 feet water, and at a cable's length farther into the gulf, 70 feet. The bottom shoals more slowly inward and upwards, but at a mile above the bar the largest vessel can be floated. The idea of a work to remove the bar and admit ships of any draught, was natural, when once the given elements were known.

This work will immortalise some statesman, and is in itself of magnitude too immense as to its certain benefits, to be called merely national:-its execution would be an advantage to the civilized world.

To the deepening of the main outlet of the Mississippi, may be added as part of the same chain of improvement, the Florida canal. This work so national and so obviously necessary to shorten the distance and lessen the dangers of the coasting trade of the United States, must gain increasing attention until actually accomplished. On Tanner's map of the United States a line of this canal is projected from the town of St. Mary's, on the river of the same name, in a direction a little S. of W. to the mouth of Appalachicola. It may be doubted whether the intermediate space has been yet surveyed to an adequate extent, to the south of this route, to determine either its adoption or modification. There is another consideration which must excite doubts of the St. Mary's being the proper emporium on the Atlantic limit of such a canal. The least attainable depth of water must decide that necessary to the canal; and of course, if only 8 or 10 feet can be obtained for a harbour on the gulf side, there would be nothing gained, as far as the navigation of the canal is to be concerned, in a deeper harbour on the Atlantic. The proposed distance from St. Mary's to Appalachicola, is 250 miles, and where crossing the summit level between the Oscilla and Ocklockonee rivers, the rise is 217 feet above tide-water in the Atlantic Ocean.

On Tanner's map again, there is another canal route traced from the St. John's river, at Jacksonville, to Suwanee river. In length, the latter route

is not half the distance of the former, nor can the intervening heights between St. John's and Suwanee, be near so great as they are between St. Mary's and Appalachicola rivers.

Independent of density of population and concentration of wealth on its route, a most careful and extended survey of the isthmus which unites the peninsula to the continent, is requisite to a proper location of the Florida canal. Such a survey ought to embrace a minute admeasurement of the depth of water along both coasts, but particularly along that of the Gulf of Mexico.

We have now brought our sketch round to the point of outset, and many readers of the Encyclopædia may discover important objects omitted, but it ought to be considered that our article is necessarily brief. In the composition of our view of canals, we have also omitted any insertion of either estimated or incurred expense. Our view being to give the reader a general view of the great canal works actually in operation, and glancing incidentally on those which are only designed, or in an incipient state. The fact is, that the advance of population and active enterprise is such, that the statistical writer has more than a daily task prepared, and no work on the geography of the United States, but must present voids in a few months after publication.

The following statements respecting the canals and rail-roads in the United States have been extracted from an essay written by George W. Smith, Philadelphia, 1832.

"The spirit of enterprise has been displayed on a scale commensurate with the extensive territory of the United States. With the exception of Great Britain and Holland, no country on the face of the globe contains as many or as extensive canals as this Republic; and the whole of combined Europe has not effected as much during the last 16 years as the three states of Pennsylvania, New York, and Ohio only. The total number of miles of canals in the Union is 2526 (including about 264 miles which are nearly finished, and which will be navigable during the ensuing spring). Several extensive canals are in progress, and an immense number of projected or authorised works are not included in the summary just given. Nearly four-fifths of the aggregate amount have been executed in the three states above mentioned.

"In a country where the science of civil engineering was scarcely known even by name but a few years since, many errors may of course be expected to exist in the plan and construction of works which require the most profound knowledge and extensive experience of the profession. Astonishment may, therefore, be expressed rather at the unusual measure of success which has attended the execution of many of these works, than at the failure and disappointment which have been so frequently experienced. Surveyors, millers, and judges, &c., have been converted into engineers with magic rapidity, assuming the title without previous study or practice; they have been entrusted with the expenditure of countless millions of dollars without any precaution but a reliance on

their intuitive sagacity: knowledge has, indeed, been acquired during the progress of the works, but the expense of tuition has been enormous. In the mean time a new race of engineers has sprung up -men uniting the science of the scholar, and the skill which practice only can confer. Under their auspices a great improvement in the management and character of public works has already been manifested.

*** The geographical features of the United States have already been described, and their influence on the location of the canals in various parts of the country. As the rivers generally break through the ridges instead of flowing in the valleys after the European fashion-and as these ridges are very numerous and in a great degree parallel, this circumstance has confined canals to the vicinity of the rivers. An additional cause, the supply of a sufficient quantity of water, which can only be obtained from the larger streams, has rendered this course necessary. An evil of great magnitude is an unavoidable concomitant of such localities; the canals are often exposed to the violence of floods and ice freshets. This evil may sometimes be obviated or diminished by a judicious selection of sites; but in many cases skill is unavailing, and no alternative is presented but the conversion of rivers into canals, or rather slackwater pools, or the location of the canals on their margin. In either case, the puny structures of man are frequently unable to contend with the fury of the elements, and a few moments are sufficient to accomplish the destruction of works on which whole years of unremitted labour and the treasures of a nation have been expended. The damages which have been sustained by the canals in Pennsylvania alone, from the freshets of the present year, have been estimated at $450,000, in addition to the extensive and incalculable injury which will result from a suspension of the navigation during the many months which will elapse before the injury can be repaired.

"The locks, aqueducts, and other constituent parts of the American canals, are not constructed with the same regard for permanency which is observable in Europe. Wood is usually employed as a substitute for stone in the aqueducts (particularly those of large dimensions),, waste weirs, bridges, and the foundation of the locks. Sometimes even the locks are wholly or in part built of timber. Inverted arches of masonry for foundations for the locks have been employed in perhaps not more than half a dozen locks in the Unionprincipally in Pennsylvania. The cheapness of timber has rendered the use of masonry in many cases inexpedient; and the substitution of the former material has diminished the cost of constructing public works, at the same time it has rendered them less durable and more subject to injury."

"The cost of the canals in the United States has already been about $21,400 on an average per mile. Although many expensive alterations have been made, a large additional sum will be requisite for the purpose of completing these works in a permanent and suitable manner. The amount necessary

for this purpose cannot be accurately estimated; but, if a judgment may be formed from the brief and limited experience of New York and Pennsylvania (where much expenditure will still be necessary), the ultimate cost will probably be at least $28,500 per mile. The navigable canals of Pennsylvania have already cost $25, 185 per mile." "The cheapest canal (probably in the Union) cost about $5200 on an average per mile. (Fractions will be generally omitted in these estimates.)

"The Chesapeake and Delaware Canal cost nearly $169,000 per mile. The dimensions of this work permit the passage of coasters; of course the cost was greater than would be requisite for canals intended only for boats; the amount of excavation and embankment was much greater than usual. This work presents one of the cases where canals are decidedly superior to rail-roads-namely, for connecting by a short line an immense extent of navigable waters: although the tolls chargeable on every ton render the cost of transportation ten times greater than on a rail-road of similar extent, and constructed for perhaps one-tenth of the cost of the canal-nevertheless, the expense, delay, and inconvenience of transhipment give a preference to a work which permits a continuous voyage. A rival rail-road, to connect the same points, has, however, even in this instance, been made, and with great advantage, for the rapid conveyance of light goods, passengers, &c., for which purposes canals are not adapted."

"In the United States, the proprietors of the two thousand five hundred and twenty-five miles of canals, which are in operation or in progress, have not, in any one solitary instance, received from the tolls derived from these works the current interest of the country on the capital expended in their construction (including therein, as part of the real cost, the arrears of unpaid interest on those portions of the capital which were temporarily dormant). The Erie and Champlain Canals of New York (now the most productive in the Union,) have not in any one year, with one exception, paid the expenses of their repairs and management, and the current rate of interest on their actual cost, although in other respects they

have greatly increased the wealth and welfare of that populous state.*

"Justice, however, requires the remark, that many of the American canals have only recently been constructed, and, consequently, that the trade on them is not yet established to the extent which time will create: on a few the navigation has not yet commenced. The trade will, undoubtedly, increase.

"Enormous additional sums, however, will be required to improve and strengthen the works on these highways; few of which are yet consolidated or permanently finished. The remark which has been made, that "Canals when first filled with water should be considered as scarcely half finished," applies with peculiar force to the flimsy and precarious precursors of more substantial works, which the impatience and inexperience of our citizens have caused to spring into existence with a celerity resembling the growth of a fragile mushroom-rapid but unsubstantial; manifesting symptoms of decay before even the appearance of maturity."

Notes on the Internal Improvement of Pennsylvania.

"In some parts of the Union a very erroneous opinion prevails, that the United States are indebted entirely to the example of New York for the active and beneficial spirit of internal improvement which at present pervades the whole confederacy.

"The splendid results which followed the execution of that stupendous work, the grand canal of New York, most powerfully attracted the attention and stimulated the exertions of other states; many works which had been commenced long prior to the date of that canal, ceased to languish, and acquired new life and vigour from the success of that splendid example. But the spirit of the age, the spirit of internal improvement, was already abroad; the attention of the people in many of the states, was directed to the improvement of the channels by which commercial intercouse was maintained. The difficulty and enormous expense of transportation on the roads of the country, had induced some of our statesmen, even before the revolution, to