glasses for crepusculine observations. He made maps of the Pleiades, and proposed to prove the earth's motion by examining the circumpolar stars. 5. In optics he made many improvements. He attempted, with some success, to make glasses of other figures than spherical. He measured and delineated the spheres of the humours of the eye. He explained the reasons of erect vision. He gave a new theory of fractions which agreed with observation; and he demonstrated the general phenomena of dioptrics, and the principles of refracting tele

scopes.

6. He made many useful suggestions and experiments on navigation. He made a magnetic terella, which he placed in the middle of a plain board, with a hole into which the terella is half sunk, like a globe with its poles in the horizon; steel-filings were then scattered with a sieve over the plane board, and they immediately arranged themselves into a sort of helix, proceeding, as it were, out of one pole, and returning in by the other.

In the practice of seamanship he made many experiments. He investigated the theory of sailing in all winds, the geometrical mechanism of rowing, swimming, and flying, and the resistance which bodies experienced in moving through fluid media.

7. In the useful arts his contrivances were numerous. He invented the art of mezzotinto engraving, an art which Prince Rupert greatly improved. He suggested many useful improvements in waterworks. He invented the art of drawing pictures by microscopical glasses. He constructed perpetual, or long-lived lamps, for maintaining a constant heat, for the purpose of hatching insects, rearing plants, preserving chemical preparations, imitating nature in producing fossils and minerals, and keeping the motion of watches equal for finding the longitude, and for other astronomical purposes. In 1669 he communicated to the Royal Society a description of an instrument for drawing the outlines of any object in perspective. It is published in the It is published in the Transactions, No. 45, p. 898.

In the same year he communicated to the Society, a paper entitled the Generation of an Hyperbolical Cylindroid, and a hint of its application for grinding hyperbolic glasses.-See Philosophical Transactions, No. 48, p. 961.

Sir Christopher afterwards resumed the consideration of the subject, and communicated the draught of an engine for grinding hyperbolical glasses. See Philosophical Transactions, No. 53, p. 1059.

The idea contained in these two papers is inge. nious and beautiful, but we fear not likely to answer in practice; though with the exquisite workmanship of modern times, we think it might be resumed with considerable probability of success.

When Mr. Wren was at Oxford, he was employed by the king to make drawings of animalculæ seen by the microscope; and such was their merit, that Dr. Hooke, in his preface to his Micrographia, states, that he began it with reluctance, as he had to follow the footsteps of so eminent a person as Dr. Wren, who was the first that attempted any thing of this nature, and whose original draughts VOL. XVIII.-PART II.

made one of the ornaments of the great collection of rarities in the king's closet. He then adds, "I must affirm of him, that since the time of Archimedes there scarce were met in one man so great a perfection-such a mechanical head, and so philosophical a mind." Sir Isaac Newton speaks of Sir Christopher with equal praise, and names him along with Wallis and Huygens, as one the first mathematicians of the age.

Such were the scientific labours of this eminent individual, but though he did not abandon his early studies, yet his mind was now directed to new objects, which, while they principally occupied his mind, conducted him to fame and honours if not to fortune.

Charles II. had, soon after the Restoration, contemplated the repair of St. Paul's Cathedral, and in 1660 commissioners were appointed, of whom Dr. Wren was one, to superintend the restoration of it. Some of the commissioners were for "patching_it up any how, so the steeple might stand instead of a new building," while Sir Christopher proposed to rebuild the steeple with a cupola. With a view of preparing himself for this work, he went to Paris in 1665, to study the principal edifices of that capital, and after great expense and labour, he brought home views of almost all the great public buildings in France. At Paris he met with Bernini and Mansard, who were then occupied with the Louvre. He declared that he would have given his skin for Bernini's design of that great palace, but he adds, "the old reserved Italian gave him but a few minutes view of it." It was a fine little draught, on five pieces of paper, for which he had received as many thousand pistoles. I had only time to copy it with my fancy and memory, and I shall be able by discourse and a crayon, to give you a tolerable account of it." Sir Christopher returned to London in 1665, and he appears to have made more progress in a work entitled "Observations on the present State of Architecture, Arts, and Manufactures in France," but it was never published.

The repairs of St. Paul's were now begun, and the scaffolding was raised; but when the commissioners were disputing whether the repairs should be trivial or on a great scale, the conflagration of 1666, which took place five days after, put an end to the contest, by injuring the cathedral so as to render its restoration impossible.

The destruction of the capital of England, and of its sacred edifices, was an opportunity furnished by providence to call forth and display the inventive genius of our great architect.

In our Article CIVIL ARCHITECTURE, Vol. VI. p. 490-495, &c. we have given such a copious and minute account, not only of the erection of St. Paul's, but of the numerous churches designed by Sir Christopher Wren, that it would be superfluous to say a word more on the subject. We shall therefore conclude this article with such particulars of the life of Sir Christopher as are not given in the above article.

A few days after the great fire Sir Christopher drew the plan of a new city, which was submitted to the king, but rejected by the parliament. He had 4 Q

for nine days. Population of the township of Wrexham Regis in 1821, 665 houses, 706 families, 420 ditto in trade, and total number of inhabitants 3091. WURTEMBERG. See WIRTEMBERG. WURZBERG, a city of Bavaria, is situated on the Maine, in a hollow, with the valley of the Maine extending in two directions, and another valley running to the north. The Maine, which is here a small stream, divides the town into two parts (of which the larger is on the right bank) which are joined by a handsome bridge. The town is poorly built; its streets are irregular, and scarcely any of its buildings are of stone, except some of the public ones. The town contains two squares, one of which is in front of the palace, while the other forms the market-place. The principal public building is what was once the bishop's palace, and is a large oblong building on the plan of Versailles. The vault of the great staircase by Tiepolo, is a chef-d'œuvre of architecture. The great hospital called Julius' Hospital, is a large and irregular building, and possesses a fine church, a botanic garden, a collection of natural history, and of surgical instruments. The cathedral is a large, but indifferently built edifice. There are many churches in the city, but none of them are remarkable. The university contains some medical and surgical classes, and a good library. The town is surrounded with a mound and moat, and has a citadel on a hill on the left bank of the river. The manufactures of this town are upon a very small scale. Many thousand acres round the town are occupied with vineyards which produce the best wines of Franconia. Population 21,000. WYCLIFFE, JOHN, the Father of the Reformation, not only in England, but in all Europe, was born about the year 1324. His surname was derived from the village or parish of Wycliffe, the place of his birth, six miles from Richmond, Yorkshire, of which his family were proprietors from the Conquest till the year 1606. He was early destined for the church, and entered Queen's College, Oxford, in the seventeenth year of his age. He afterwards removed to Merton College, in the same university, which latter institution could boast of some of the most eminent characters of that period. He soon indeed became as distinguished as any of them. Not only did he become eminent as a dialectician, and mastered all the intricacies of the Aristotelian system, but he applied himself to the study of the sacred volume; a practice equally uncommon and despised: he perused with equal assiduity the writings of the Fathers; and so profound and minute was his acquaintance with the Christian system, that he was honoured with the title of Evangelical Doctor. This knowledge soon led to important results: even at first it disclosed to him the corrupt and hollow character of popery, and induced him to manifest little respect either for that hierarchy or for its ministers. This became evident from his first publication, entitled "The Last Age of the Church," which appeared in 1356; and soon afterwards, in his dispute with the mendicant friars, who had interfered with the discipline and privileges of the university. From defending this seminary, he proceeded not only to attack these coenobites, but

the church to which they belonged; and the more he read and meditated on this subject, the more clearly he perceived the abominations of popery. The cause of the university was carried before parliament, before which court Wycliffe advocated in person the views which he had espoused; and though he was successful there, yet, on appeal to the pope, the mendicants obtained a dispensation in their favour. Not long after this the pope made encroachments on the independence and prerogatives of the Anglican church, by conferring the richest benefices of the kingdom, not solely on foreigners, but on mere children. Parliament took up, the question; and commissioners being nominated to confer with the pope on the subject, Wycliffe was appointed one of them. These commissioners were not permitted by his holiness to repair to the papal residence, but delegates were appointed to meet them at Bruges. The embassy terminated unfavourably to the English nation, but it enabled Wycliffe to trace more fully the corruption of the Romish hierarchy, and to inspect more nearly the fountain from which they flowed. On a subsequent occasion, the parliament of England consulted Wycliffe on a question of a similar nature, namely, whether, in case of necessity, and as the means of the defence of the country, the king was entitled to detain its treasure, and to forbid contributions to the pope, even under pain of the censure of his holiness. This question he fearlessly answered in the affirmative, supporting his view in a disquisition equally candid, learned, and judicious.

Meanwhile his merits had not gone unrewarded. In 1361, he had been elevated by the university to be master of Baliol College; about the same time he was presented to a rectory in the church, and in 1365 raised to the wardenship of Canterbury Hall; from which last situation he was ejected on an appeal to the pope; a circumstance which probably urged him more zealously to oppose that tyranny of which he was himself a victim. He was afterwards appointed Professor of Divinity, and presented with the rectory of Lutterworth; situations conferred on him by the king. He resided at his rectory, and most zealously performed the duties of a parish minister there, except during the session of college, when he as faithfully devoted himself to the discharge of his academical functions. His opinions, expounded and enforced both in the pulpit and his place as professor of divinity, rapidly spread, and, in spite of ancient prejudices or ignorance, became popular, and were imbibed by persons of the greatest rank and influence. In the meantime he was the object of the most rancorous persecution on the part of the church, urged on by the pope; proceedings of which an account cannot here be given. Under every circumstance, he displayed the utmost fortitude, and an unflinching regard to sound doctrine. On one occasion, when labouring under a dangerous malady, some mendicant friars entered his chamber, in order to induce him to recant what they regarded as heresy. They knew little of the man with whom they had to do. Lifted up in bed by his servants, and emaciated as he was, he cried with a loud voice,-" I shall not

die but live, and yet declare the evil deeds of the friars." In 1382 he was driven from Oxford, but his rectory still remained to him, to which he retired.

Important as were the transactions in which he was engaged, his translation of the Bible was by far the greatest work he accomplished, and it achieved the most splendid triumphs in the cause of the Reformation. It introduced a light which gradually dispelled the darkness which for many centuries had prevailed, and put an end to ignorance, imposture, and superstition. This great work he accomplished in 1383. Several manuscript copies are to be found; but his translation of the New Testament was published by Lewis in 1731, and reprinted in 1810, under the superintendence of Mr. Baber. Not acquainted with the Greek or Hebrew languages, not then known in the country, he had recourse to the Latin vulgate as his text.

After his retirement to Lutterworth, his life and liberty were, as before, in imminent danger. He was immediately summoned to appear before the pope at Avignon, but sickness prevented him from obey. ing the summons: in truth, his constitution for many years had been rapidly giving way, and his health gradually undermined by the immense labour he underwent, as well as by anxiety of mind. He died on the 31st of December 1384, in the sixtieth year of his age.

Such is a short memoir of John Wycliffe that Englishman," to use the words of Milton, "honoured of God to be the first preacher of a general Reformation to all Europe."

He was a man of great learning,-of extensive and varied reading, of undaunted fortitude,-of warm attachment to truth,-regardless of personal considerations, and of eminent piety. He renounced the authority of the pope: he exposed the corruptions of popery; he clearly pointed out the way for those reformers, both at home and abroad, who were to come after him. But he lived in a remote age; and it is a curious fact, that he continued till his death a nominal member of that church which he laboured to expose and undermine. One half of the nation, before his death, are said to have embraced, in a greater or less degree, his opinions, which spread with wonderful rapidity over Europe. His writings were very numerous, amounting to no fewer than eighty-two. By an order from the pope his body was disinterred forty-four years after his death. It was burnt to powder, and thrown into the Swift, a small stream that washes the village of Lutterworth. About the same time, and by the same authority, such copies of his works as could

be got, were committed to the flames at Oxford, as if such proceedings could annihilate his labours or stop the progress of truth.

Various Lives of Wycliffe have appeared, but those of Lewis and Vaughan, the first published in 1731, the other in 1828, in two vols, are the best. (T. M.)

WYCOMBE, HIGH, or CHIPPING WYCOMBE, a borough town of England, in Buckinghamshire, is situated in a valley on the banks of a stream which runs through the parish, and turns some paper and corn mills, and falls into the Thames below Marlow; the High Street is spacious and well built, and has several smaller ones branching from it. The church is a handsome stone building, with a tower 108 feet high. The chancel contains a fine monument to Lord Shelburne, who died in 1751, and in the south aisle is another handsome one by Carlini, to the Countess of Shelburne, who died in 1791. Above the communion table is a large painting of St. Paul converting the Druids. The town hall, erected in 1757, by John, Earl of Shelburne, is a large brick building, sustained by 34 stone pillars. The other establishments are a grammar school and an almshouse. The manufactures of the place are paper, which is made to a great extent, and a small quantity of lace. A tesselated pavement and various Roman coins have been found near the town. Wycombe sends two members to Parliament. Population of the borough in 1821, 516 houses, 563 families, 376 ditto in trade, and total number of inhabitants 2864. See the Beauties of England and Wales, vol. i. p. 362.

WYTHE, county of Virginia, bounded S. W. by Washington, N. W. by Tazewell, N. by Giles, N. E. by Montgomery, and by the Iron mountains separating it from Grayson S. E. and S. It contains and is in part composed of a mountain valley; greatest length along the valley from S. W. to N. E. 48 miles; breadth about 22; area 1056 square miles; extending in Lat. from 36° 40' to 37° 8' N., and in Long. from 3° 36′ to 4° 32′ W. from W. C. Wythe valley is an elevated table land. From the southwestern part issue the extreme fountains of the middle fork of Holston river, interlocking sources with those of various creeks flowing into New river. Comparing the elevation of Wythe with that of Giles county, will give to the former an elevation exceeding a mean of 1600 feet. The cultivated land of Wythe must indeed rise between 1600 and 2000 feet above the ocean level. Wythe Court House. See Evansham. DARBY.

XANTHIC OXIDE, from garbos yellow, is the name given by Dr. Marcet to a very rare species of calculus. It is of a reddish or yellow colour, soluble both in acids and alkalies, and its solution in nitric acid when evaporated, possesses a brilliant yellow tint, from which it derives its name.

XANTHOGEN, from garbos yellow, and yevra to generale, is the name given by M. Zeise to the radical of a hydracid which he calls the hydroxanthic acid. The acid is a compound of carbon, sulphur, and hydrogen, and the radical he supposes to be a sulphuret of carbon. When bicarburet of sulphur is agitated with an alcoholic solution of pure potash, the alkaline properties of the potash wholly disappear, and acicular crystals are deposited at a temperature of 32°. M. Zeise ascribes these phenomena to the production of a new acid, the elements of which he considers to be derived from the alcohol and the bisulphuret.

XENOPHON, a celebrated ancient historian, philosopher and general, was born in Attica, and in consequence of his engaging appearance and manners, he was admitted among the disciples of Socrates. In the Peloponnesian war, to which he accompanied Socrates, he exhibited the first proofs of his valour, but his skill as a general was displayed in the war which Cyrus waged against his brother Artaxerxes. Cyrus, having fallen in battle in the plains of Cuanaxa, Xenophon, who was a volunteer in his army, advised his countrymen who had joined the Persian standard to retreat, and being chosen their commander, he conducted the celebrated retreat of the ten thousand, of which he has himself given so interesting an account. afterwards fought under Agesilaus in the battle of Cheronea, and having given offence to his country by that act, as well as by his former services to the Persian army, he was condemned to banish

ment.

He

The Spartan government immediately protected him, and provided for him a comfortable retreat at Scillus in Elis, where, amid the peaceful enjoyments of domestic life, in the society of his wife and two children, he composed those historical works which have immortalized his name. The wealth which he had acquired in his Asiatic expedition enabled him to improve and adorn the country around Scillus. He erected a magnificent temple to Diana, in imitation of that of Ephesus, and he spent part of his time in hunting and in rural amusements. These peaceful pursuits, however, were not destined to last; a war between Lacedemon and Elis drove him from his retirement to the city of Corinth, where he died at the great age of 90, and 359 years before the Christian era. His principal works are his Anabasis, or account of the expedition of Cyrus. His Cyropædia, a sort of moral romance, though supposed by some to be an exact account of the life and actions of Cyrus the Great; his Hellenica, a continuation of Thucydides's history, his Memorabilia of Socrates, and his Apology. His other works, which are small treatises, are his Eulogium on Agesilaus, his Economia; his tract on the Duties of Domestic Life; his dialogue entitled Hiero; his treatise on Hunting; his Symposium; his tract on the office of the Master of the Horse; his treatise on the Governments of Athens and Sparta, and his tract on the revenue of Attica. The best editions of Xenophon are those of Leunclavius, folio, Frankfort, 1596; of Ernestus, 4 vols. 8vo. Lips. 1763; and of Zeunius, 6 vols. 8vo. Lips.

1778-1791.

XERXES, the son of Darius I. succeeded to the Persian throne B.C. 489; after reigning 25 years, he was murdered by his own guards in B. C. 465. An account of his actions will be found in our articles ATHENS, GREECE, and LACEDEMON.

XIPHIAS. See ICHTHYOLOGY.