town at spring tides for vessels of 100 tons burthen. It is said to have been fortified by a castle, of which nothing now remains but a mound, and as it is commanded by adjacent hills, it could never have been of much importance. The derivation of the name seems from the Corn British "Tri," three, and "Ru," street-in allusion to the meeting of the roads from St. Austle, Bodmin, and Redruth. After the conquest it was the property of Robert Earl of Moreton and Cornwall. By Richard de Lacy, to whom it descended, a charter and privileges were procured about A.D. 1130 or 1140. There is an endowed charity for widows, the building bearing date 1631; by it the objects are provided with four shillings per week and clothing. It also contains an infirmary, founded in 1799, and erected and supported by voluntary contributions. The church of St. Mary is of rich Gothic architecture, and is surmounted by an elegant spire; it bears date 1518. The parliament of Stannators for regulating the affairs of tin mines, and the court of the vice warden of the Stannaries are held here. It is also one of the three towns in Cornwall in which the duke of Cornwall's tin coinages are held. There are three large smelting houses for tin in the immediate vicinity. It possesses a library and Philosophical Institution; in the latter is a good collection of the natural productions of the county. Its population is from 7000 to 8000. It is 260 miles south-west of London, and 11 north of Falmouth. It returns 20 members to parliament; the power of election being vested in the mayor, 4 aldermen, and 20 capital burgesses. The present recorder is the Earl of Falmouth. Its principal trade is the importation of coal from Wales, and timber from Norway and America.

TSIAMPA. See SIAMPA, Vol. XVII. p. 270. TUAM, a town of Ireland, in Galway, consisting of four streets which diverge nearly at right angles from the market house. The town is neat, well built, and thriving. The chief buildings are the cathedral at the end of the town, which is a neat edifice, with a lofty spire; the archiepiscopal palace; the Diocesan school house, and the market house standing on square stone pillars. The linen manufacture is carried on in the vicinity, and the place possesses an active retail trade. There is an elegant mall here.

TUBINGEN, a town of Wirtemberg, situated between two hills at the conflux of the Neckar and Ammer. It depends principally on its university, which was founded in 1477, and greatly improved in 1769. It was originally protestant; but after the suppression of the Catholic college of Elwangen, the Catholics were admitted to Tubingen. The students vary from 500 to 600. There is also here a seminary for the sons of families of rank, and a theological institution for educating 150 students as clergymen or schoolmasters. Attached to the university is a public library and botanic garden. The inhabitants have some employment in woollen manufactures. Population, 6000.

VOL. XVIII. PART I.

TUCUMAN. See BUENOS AYRES, Vol. IV. p. 781, and SOUTH AMERICA, Vol. XVII.

TVER, a town of Russia, and capital of a government of the same name. It is situated on the great road from Moscow to St. Petersburg, at the conflux of three rivers, the Tvertza, the Wolga, and the Tmaka, which are crossed by three bridges, and divide the town into six parts. The bridge over the Wolga is of boats, and is removed in winter. The town is divided into the old and new, separated by the Wolga; the former consisting almost wholly of wooden cottages, and the latter having been burned down in 1763. The Empress, in order to repair this disaster, ordered the town to be rebuilt upon a new plan, and advanced £60,000 for that purpose. The streets, which are long and broad, diverge from an octagon, and the houses in the principal streets are of brick, stuccoed white. There are also some handsome squares. Many of the houses are of stone, and Dr. Clarke says that the shops and churches merit particular regard. The principal public buildings are the Gothic cathedral, the palace, the courts of justice, the government offices, and the hospital. There is an ecclesiastical seminary here under the bishop, which admits 600 students. In 1776 the Empress founded a school for 200 children of burghers, who are taught reading, writing, and accounts. In 1779 she also established an academy for the education of the young nobility, which admits 120 students. The manufactures of the place consist of linen, wax candles, leather, and hardware articles. Its exports are corn, hemp, and iron. Pallas speaks of the delicious sterlet taken from the Wolga, with which travellers are regaled in this town at all seasons. Population of the town about 20,000.

The province of Tver contains about 24,100 square miles, and 1,000,000 inhabitants. It possesses some iron mines. Longitude of Tver 35° 57' East, and Latitude 56° 51′ 54" North. See Clarke's Travels, vol. i. p. 39, 40.

TULA, a large town of Russia in Europe, is situated in a smooth valley, at the conflux of the Tulpa and Upa. Before reaching this town from Moscow, it presents a considerable appearance. A very handsome church, with white columns, more like a nobleman's palace than a place of worship, appears on a height above the town, which occupies a very extensive site, and is filled with domes and spires.* The entrance to it, both on its northern and southern side, is through triumphal arches, made of wood, and painted to imitate marble. The streets of Tula are paved, and it presents a greater appearance of industry than is usual in Russia. Most of the houses are of wood, but those built of stone are considerable, and daily increase in number. The river is crossed with several bridges, some of wood and others of stone. The public edifices are the churches, the bishop's palace, the courts of justice, and the hospitals. There are two academies here, one for priests, another for the sons of genteel families.

Tula is the great emporium of hardware for the whole empire, containing the imperial manufactory of arms, and manufactories of all sorts of cutlery and works in polished steel. There are also here tanneries, breweries, and soap works. The number of its merchants, including shipbuilders, is 4000; and its commerce, independent of the hardware manufactory, consists of European merchandise, Greek wares, and other productions of Turkey. The imperial manufactory of arms employs 6000 men. The iron mines in the vicinity are very considerable. They occupy an extent of more than 10 miles, and from them the celebrated forges of Demidoff, 38 miles from Tula, derive their ore. Dr. Clarke states the population at 30,000, but later estimates make it 40,000. East Lon. 37° 1' 34". North Lat. 54° 11' 40". See Dr. Clarke's Travels, vol. i. p. 179-186.

TULLAMORE, a town of Ireland in King's county, traversed by a river of the same name. It is a neat and well built town, with one broad street, containing many handsome houses. The church, market house, and barracks are the chief buildings. The linen manufacture is actively carried on here, and its trade is greatly facilitated by the grand canal, which enters the town. The splendid residence of Charleville Castle is close to the town.

TUMMEL. See PERTHSHIRE. TUNBRIDGE, a market town of England in Kent, is situated on five branches of the river Med way, each of which is crossed by a stone bridge. The town consists chiefly of one long and broad street, kept remarkably clean, and containing many good houses. The church of St. Peter and St. Paul is large and handsome, and contains some good monuments. Near the principal bridge, built in 1775, is a wharf for the reception of timber brought hither from the Weald. The free grammar school is a commodious building. The picturesque remains of Tunbridge castle stand on the south-west side of the town, consisting of an entrance gateway, flanked by round towers, and in a state of tolerable preservation. Population of the parish in 1821: houses inhabited, 1155; families, 1407; inhabitants, 7406.

TUNBRIDGE WELLS, the name of a straggling village within five or six miles of Tunbridge, and celebrated for its mineral waters. It consists of four parts: Mount Ephraim, Mount Pleasant, Mount Sion, and the wells, which form the centre of the place. It resembles a large town in a wood interspersed with rich meadows, and inclosing a large common with walks, rides, and handsome rows of large trees. Near the wells are the mar kets, the medicinal water, the chapel, the assembly rooms, and the public walks. The upper walk was formerly paved with brick, but in 1795 with purbeck stone, which cost more than £100. The lower walk is chiefly used by servants and the peasantry. A portico, supported by Tuscan columns, extends the whole length of the upper walk, and on the left is a row of large flourishing trees, with a gallery in the centre for music. The accommodation here for visitors, both in the town and in private dwellings, is of the best description, and persons of rank and

wealth have houses here for occasional or permanent residence. There is here a theatre, and a boys' and a girls' school, the former for 80, and the latter for 100 scholars. The trade of the place consists in the manufacture of a variety of toys, baskets, dressing boxes, desks, &c. called Tunbridge ware, and made of different kinds of wood. The rides and drives in the vicinity are beautiful. An analysis of the mineral waters has already been given in our article MINERAL WATERS, Vol. XIII. p. 406. See also Dr. Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, vol. viii. p. 169, for Dr. Scudamore's Analysis, and the Beauties of England, vol. viii. p. 1295.

TUNIS, a large city in Northern Africa, and capital of a territory of the same name, is situated at the bottom of a bay about ten miles south-west of ancient Carthage, and is about three miles in circumference. It stands on a plain encircled by considerable heights on all sides but the east, and is surrounded with lakes and marshes, which do not produce insalubrity, an effect which is ascribed by Baron de Tott to the depth of the valley, which obstructs the vapours of the channel and the lakes, and prevents them from putrefying, while Dr. Shaw attributes it to the number of aromatic trees which are used to heat their ovens and their baths.

The town is built with the greatest irregularity, and the streets are so narrow and dirty as to be almost impassable. The principal buildings are a great mosque, and a number of a smaller size; but the grandest building is the new palace of the bey, which is a Gothic structure of great beauty. The lower part consists of a variety of fancy shops, which are rented from the bey, and contain the productions of Tunis. The houses of European consuls are more like prisons than residences, and the Moorish houses are only a storey high, with flat roofs. The old fortified palace of the bey, called El Bardo, encompassed with walls and flanked with towers, stands two miles west of Tunis. There are here a few academies and schools, where reading, arithmetic, and the Koran are taught. The harbour and citadel of Tunis, called the Goletta, is situated six miles to the west. There is here a basin capable of containing all the vessels belonging to Tunis. Between Goletta and Tunis there extends a lake, separated from the sea by a narrow isthmus. It serves as a canal between the city and the harbour, and affords an ample supply of salt.

The citadel, called El Gospa, and the high walls which defend the city, form a very insufficient protection to it. The former is out of repair, and is besides commanded by the neighbouring heights. Near the centre of the city there is a piazza of great extent, which is said to have once contained 3000 shops for the sale of woollen and linen goods manufactured in the city. Besides the public buildings we have mentioned, there is an exchange, a custom house, and an arsenal. The principal exports from Tunis are wheat, barley, olive oil of excellent quality, wool, soap, sponges, and Orchilla weed. The imports consist of all kinds of European manufac tures, West India produce, and cotton from the East Indies.

The population of the city is estimated at 12,000

houses, and 130,000 inhabitants, of whom 30,000 are Jews, and 1500 Christians. East Lon. 10° 20'. North Lat. 36° 44'. See Shaw's Travels in Barbary, and our article BARBARY, Vol. III. p. 250, for general information respecting Tunis.

TUNQUIN, or TONQUIN, OF TUNKIN, the native name of which is Huocanam. The states under the power of the emperor of Tunkin are situated in the Peninsula beyond the Ganges, and extend from 9° to 23° of North Latitude, and from 118° to 127° of Longitude, reckoning from Ferro. They are bounded on the north by China and the Chinese sea, on the south by the Chinese sea, and on the east by Siam. Tunkin, properly so called, extends from the 17th to the 23d degree of latitude. It is separated from China by deserts and by inaccessible mountains, the only pass in which is shut up by a wall with a gate, which is guarded on each side. Tunkin is divided into ten provinces, of which the four situated at the extremities bear the name of one of the cardinal points to which they correspond. The capital is called Bac-Kinh, though originally Keeho.

Mountains running from east to west divide Tunkin into two parts, the northern exceeding the southern.

Tunkin possesses more than fifty rivers, which flow into the sea. That which has the largest course is formed by the union of two, one of which has its source in China, and passes Bac-Kinh. It contains numerous islands, and though there is a bar at its mouth, yet Chinese vessels from 400 to 500 tons, which draw little water, can navigate it to Bac-Kinh. To the south of the embouchure of the Saigong there is a sound capable of holding the largest vessels, but ships can only get out of it by a single wind, and provisions and water cannot be had. In all Tunkin there is not a single harbour where the king's vessels can enter. The islands of Bien-Son and Mee may, however, be useful for building shipping.

The climate of Tunkin is remarkably temperate. Spring takes place in February; summer continues from March to September; autumn takes place in October and November, and December and January form winter, if any part of the year merits that appellation. The rains begin a little before May, and end in August.

Several years ago a dreadful noise, like that of cannon, was heard, and was followed by an irruption of the sea, which advanced more than two leagues into the interior. At the end of twelve or fifteen hours it retired, after having destroyed several villages, and many men and animals. Á similar event is said to have taken place fifty years before.

Little is known of the mineralogy of Tunkin. It contains iron and copper veins, Kaolin and Petunze. Gold is found in small particles in the rivers and in the soil. Saltpetre is also found.

The principal animals of Tunkin are the elephant, the buffalo, the rhinoceros, the tiger, the wild bull, wild dogs who go about in troops of one and two hundred, the wild boar, bears of two kinds, one called the horse bear and the other the sow bear, deer, foxes, antelopes, wild cats, rats of a large and

voracious kind, which are eaten by the inhabitants, and several poisonous serpents. The coasts and rivers abound with fish and tortoises. The birds are very numerous, among which are eagles and vultures.

The principal production of the soil is rice, which forms the food of three-fourths of the inhabitants. In good land there is a return of forty or fifty for one, and a space of 14,000 square feet is said to have yielded a crop of rice, which, including straw, weighed 6, 8, or 10,000 pounds, poid de marc. The land never lies fallow, but yields two crops annually, one in July and one in November. The one generally remains four months in the ground, but there is a smaller kind which is only a hundred days in it. A leguminous crop is sometimes obtained between the two rice crops. Sometimes only one crop of rice is taken and two leguminous ones, and sometimes the third crop is a sort of black grain called rung.

There is a remarkable odoriferous kind of rice which yields arrack by distillation, and is said to intoxicate those who cat it. Herbs and potatoes are also raised, and several other roots unknown in this country. Plums, pomegranates, figs, lemons, and excellent oranges, are raised, and also some of the Indian fruits. Betel, sugar, cinnamon, ginger, pepper, cloves, and tea are also among the productions of Tunkin. The tea is said to be equal to that of China, but this opinion is disputed.

Rice,

The Tunkinese have arrived at considerable perfection in some of the useful arts. The silk and cotton stuffs are of a very superior quality. The finest cotton stuffs are also manufactured, and the cotton is spun only during the night, when the moisture is supposed to increase the fineness of the threads. These stuffs bring a higher price than those of silk. They have considerable knowledge in dyeing, but they have no soap, the place of which is supplied by the bark of some trees. A whole village is sometimes devoted to the same profession. Tunkin carries on but little commerce. and the precious metals, are not allowed to be exported. The exportation of copper and cinnamon is reserved for the emperor. The principal articles of export are fish, walnuts, ebony, ivory, calamine brought from Japan to make brass wire, tortoise shells, molasses, cloth made of bark of trees, very slight carpets, small varnished articles, articles in mother of pearl, cotton and silk, both raw and manufactured. These two last articles of com. merce are the most considerable. The articles imported are tea from China, refined sugar, wheat flour, spiceries, medicinal plants, drugs from China and Corea, hemp, lint, silken. stuffs, inferior, less durable, and more expensive than those of Tunkin, but in greater demand from their having flowers and patterns, cloth for the uniform of the troops, red cloth for house sandals, mercury, which is not employed as a medicine, but for the solution of metals, large cups and saucers, articles in glass or a kind of paste, jewellery, copper, and iron kitchen utensils. Almost all these articles come from China, but the Europeans exclusively supply Tunkin with instruments of war, particularly fire-arms,

which of all articles of merchandise are most in demand. These fire-arms can only be sold to the government.

The vegetable aliments of the Tunkinese are rice, maize, potatoes, but particularly the sea vegetable known in China by the name of Chinchon, and called in Tunkin Hai-tsee. Their animal food consists of beef, buffalo, pork, goat flesh, the rhinoceros, some parts of the elephant, apes, horses, dogs, rats, lizards, worms, and particular kinds of serpents. They do not use milk, and they have the greatest repugnance to blood, and hence they neither eat butter nor cheese. They rear poultry, ducks, and geese, &c. but they prefer the eggs when they are rotten, and particularly when they feel the bones of the embryo chicken crushing under their teeth. They eat the ant's eggs, and fry the nymphæ of the silk worm.

The children go entirely naked till they are seven years old, and when the men are working they wear only a girdle, which returns between their thighs. Their dress of ceremony is a long-sleeved robe, reaching the feet like the robes of office in Europe. Under this robe they have only a girdle. The women wear a robe which leaves naked the upper part of the throat and a great part of their back. Their petticoats come down only to the middle of their leg. Both sexes wear turbans, but neither stockings nor shoes. White is the colour of mournings. Yellow or a golden colour is worn only by the royal family.

The houses consist of three apartments, one for dwelling in, another for the kitchen, &c. and the third for a stable. They must not be square, for this form is reserved for the king, and they must have only one storey, unless the proprietor enjoys some dignity. The houses are almost all made of bamboo.

The constitution of Tunkin is a despotism, and the sovereignty has a nominal dependence on China. The nation is divided into two distinct orders, the princes and the people. The monarchy is hereditary and in the male line, the right of primogeniture being observed. The king, however, can change the order of succession, provided he choose the issue of a solemn marriage. Tunkin is divided into twelve provinces, which are subdivided into arondissements and bailliages, in each of which two mandarins, one military and the other civil, administer justice.

The religion of Tunkin is polytheism. Idols are worshipped, but only as the representatives of living beings. They worship the heavens, the earth, mountains, forests, woods, streams; and their ancestors are worshipped with profound veneration as the guardians of their families. They offer sacrifices to them three times a-year. The bonzes or priests have no spiritual authority, but merely direct the sacrifices, preach and sing to the praises of the divinities.

The whole empire of Tunkin is supposed to contain twenty-three millions of inhabitants.

For farther information on Tunkin see CAMBODIA, COCHIN-CHINA, LAOS and SIAMPA. See also Exposé Statistique du Tunkin, de la Cochinchine du Camboge, du Tsiampa, du Laos, du Lac-tho, par M. Mn, sur la relation de M. de la Bissachere Missionaire dans le Tunkin. 2 vols. Lond. 1811.

TUNNEL, a name given to a subterraneous arch-way driven through a hill or beneath a river, for the purpose of making a canal or a road, or a subterraneous bridge. In our article NAVIGATION, Inland, we have already given an account of some of the most celebrated tunnels cut for the purposes of canals. We shall therefore at present limit ourselves to a notice of the new plan of tunnelling invented by that celebrated engineer M. Brunel, and practised in the excavation of the tunnel under the Thames. This notice was drawn up by the editor of this work for a scientific journal.

As the celebrated author of this plan has had the kindness to favour us with a description and drawings of his new method of tunnelling, which, though printed, are, we believe, not intended for separate publication, we conceive that our readers will be highly gratified by an explanation of a method which, in point of ingenuity and utility, has not been surpassed by any of our modern improvements in the useful arts.

The writer of this notice had the peculiar gratification of examining, in 1818, in company with his much respected friend Professor Pictet, all the original drawings, on a large scale, at the house of Mr Brunel, and of having them explained by that distinguished engineer. Mr. Brunel then mentioned that the idea upon which his new plan of tunnelling is founded, was suggested to him by the operations of the Teredo, a testaceous worm, covered with a cylindrical shell, which eats its way

through the hardest wood, and has, on this account, been called by Linnæus calamitas navium. The same happy observation of the wisdom of nature, led our celebrated countryman Mr. Watt to deduce the construction of the Flexible Water-Main, from the mechanism of the lobster's tail.

The difficulties (says Mr. Brunel) which have opposed themselves to every attempt that has been hitherto made to execute a tunnel under the bed of a river, have been so many and so formidable, as to have prevented its successful termination in those instances where the attempts have been made.

To propose, therefore, the formation of a tunnel after the abandonment of these several attempts, may appear somewhat presumptuous. On inquir ing, however, into the causes of failure, it will be found that the chief difficulty to be overcome lies in the inefficiency of the means hitherto employed in forming the excavation upon a large scale.

In the case of the drift-way made under the Thames at Rotherhithe in 1809, the water presented no obstacle for 930 feet; and, when a great body of quicksand gave way and filled the drift, the miners soon overcame this obstruction, and were able to proceed until they were stopped by a second irruption, which in a few minutes filled it. Nothing comes more satisfactorily in support of the system that is adopted here, than the result of the operations that were carried, under that circumstance, to an extent of 1011 feet, and within 130 feet from the opposite shore.

It is to be remarked that, at the second irrup tion, on examining the bed of the river, a hole was discovered four feet diameter, nine feet deep, with the sides perpendicular,-a proof that the body of quicksand was not extensive; but what is most remarkable is, that this hole could be stopped merely by throwing from above clay, partly in bags, and other materials: and, after pumping the water out under a head of twenty-five feet of loose ground, and thirty feet of water, the miners resumed the work, and proceeded a little further; but finding the hole at the first irruption increased, and the filling over the second very much sunk, the undertaking was abandoned.

The character of the plan before us, consists in the mode of effecting the excavation, by removing no more earth than is to be replaced by the body of the tunnel, retaining thereby the surrounding ground in its natural state of density and solidity. In order so to effect an excavation thirty-four feet in breadth by eighteen feet six inches in height, the author of this plan proposes to have the body of the tunnel preceded by a strong framing of corresponding dimensions, as represented in the ac companying drawings (Plate DXXVI.), and in the model proposed to be submitted for inspection. The object of this framing is to support the ground, not only in front of the tunnel, but at the same time to protect the work of excavation in all directions. The body of the tunnel, which is to be constructed in brick, is intended to be fitted close to the ground, (See Fig. 1-3.); and, in proportion as the framing is moved forward, so the brick work is made to

keep pace with it. But, as this framing could not be forced forward all in one body, on account of the friction of its external sides against its surrounding earth, it is composed of eleven perpendicular frames, which admit of being moved singly and independently of each other, in proportion as the ground is worked away in front. These several frames are provided with such mechanism as may be necessary to move them forward, as well as to secure them against the brick-work, when they are stationary. It is to be observed that six alternate frames are stationary, while the five intermediate ones are left free, for the purpose of being moved forward when required; these, in their turn, are made stationary for relieving the six alternate ones, and so on.

In order that a sufficient number of hands may be employed together, and with perfect security, each perpendicular frame is divided into three small chambers, which may properly be denominated cells, (See Fig. 1-2). By this disposition thirty-three men may be brought to operate together with mechanical uniformity, and quite independent of each other. These cells, which are open at the back, present in front, against the ground, a complete shield composed of small boards, which admit of being removed and replaced singly at pleasure.

"It is in these cells that the work of excavation is carried on. There each individual is to operate on the surface opposed to him, as a workman would cut out a recess in a wall for the purpose of letting in a piece of framing; with this difference only, that, instead of working upon the whole surface, he takes out one of the small boards at a time, cuts the ground to the depth of a few inches, and replaces the board before he proceeds to the next. When he has thus gained from three to six inches over the whole surface (an operation which it is expected may be made in all the cells nearly in the same time), the frames are moved forward, and so much of the brick-work added to the body of the tunnel. Thus entrenched and secure, thirty-three men may carry on an excavation which is 630 feet superficial area, in regular order and uniform quantities, with as much facility and safety as if one drift only of 19 feet square was to be opened by one man.

The drift carried under the Thames in 1809, which was about the size of these cells, and was excavated likewise by only one man, proceeded at the rate of from four to ten feet per day. In the plan now proposed, it is not intended that the progress should exceed the rate of three feet per day, because the work should proceed with mechanical uniformity in all the points together.

With regard to the line of operation, if we examine the nature of the ground we have to go through, we observe under the third stratum, which has been found to resist infiltrations, that the substrata, to the depth of 86 feet, are of a nature that present no obstacle to the progress of a tunnel; we are informed that no water was met there. It is therefore through these substrata that it is proposed to penetrate, and to carry the line that is