the Cattegat, and the Scagerac, and west by the North Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. It forms a vast peninsula, often called Scandinavia, extending from Lat. 55° to 71° N., and from Lon. 6° to 31° E., having an area of 300,000 square miles with a population of 4,230,000.

2. Mountains. The Scandinavian system forms a long chain of mountains extending in a northeasterly direction from Cape Lindesnes to the North Cape, a distance of upwards of 1000 miles. During a part of their course they separate Norway from Sweden. The highest summits are Scagstlostind, 8,400 feet high, and Sneehætta 8,120 feet, both in the central part of the chain, which bears the name of the Dofrines or Doffrefield mountains. The northern and southern parts of the range form rather broad high table-lands than a connected chain.

3. Rivers. Numerous streams descend from both sides of the mountains; those on the west have a short course and are not navigable. The rivers of Sweden running into the Cattegat and the Gulf of Bothnia, have a longer course; the principal are the Dahl, 260 miles in length, and the Tornea, which separates Sweden from Russia. The Gotha, the outlet of lake Wenner, has a fall at the village of Trolhatta of 100 feet, forming a celebrated cataract.

4. Lakes. The largest lakes are in Sweden; lake Wenner is 100 miles long by 60 broad; lake Wetter, of nearly the same length and about half the breadth, empties its waters through the Motala into the Baltic; lake Malar is 60 miles long, by 18 broad, and covered with numerous islands. In Norway the Micsen, and Fæmund are the

chief lakes.

5. Islands. The Atlantic coast is strewed with small rocky islets called holms, interspersed with groups of larger islands. The Loffoden islands are chiefly celebrated for the famous whirlpool called the Maelstrom, which in rough weather is violent enough to engulf whales and small vessels, that should get within the current. The coast of Norway is indented by innumerable inlets of the sea, but affords few good harbors. Gothland and Eland are the principal Swedish islands in the Baltic.

6. Capes. The two most remarkable capes lie at the two extremities of the country. North Cape, at the northern extremity, is formed by several islands lying close to the shore; they consist of high craggy rocks, and exhibit the most dreary and desolate appearance. The southern extremity of Norway is called the Lindesnes, or Naze, and forms the northern point of the entrance to a strait called the Sleeve, which communicates with the Baltic.

7. Climate. Scandinavia extends beyond the Arctic circle, and its northern part is exposed to all the rigors of a polar winter; here the sun continues above the horizon in summer for two months and a half, and in winter remains below it for an equal space. There is hardly such a thing as spring, the summer's heat so suddenly succeeds the cold of winter. The summer is short.

8. Soil. In the southern part are some tracts of considerable fertility, yet the soil generally is stony and barren; and in many parts it may be said there is none at all.

9. Animals and Vegetables. In the north the country is an almost impenetrable forest of pines and firs, and dwarf birches, abounding in deer, hares, elks, bears, and wolves. Gluttons, lynxes, foxes, and lemmings are also found. In the extreme north mosses and lichens, and

berry-bearing shrubs only occur. In the southern parts the oak, beech, and elm flourish.

10. Minerals. There are valuable mines of silver, copper, and iron, and lead, sulphur, alum, &c. also occur. The silver mines of Sala in Sweden are productive, but those of Kongsberg in Norway have ceased to be so. Excellent iron is worked in very large quantities in Sweden; the richest mines are at Dannemora in Upland. The copper mines of Fahlun yield abundance of that metal. The rich mines of Norway are now neglected. Sweden abounds in mineral springs, some of which are much visited.

11. Divisions. The Swedish monarchy consist of the two distinct kingdoms of Sweden and Norway; the former is divided into 24 governments; the latter into 17 bailiwicks.

12. Canals. The Gotha canal is one of the principal in Europe; it connects the Cattegat, by means of the river Gotha, the lakes Wenner and Wetter, and the river Motala, with the Baltic at Soderkoping; the whole distance is 146 miles of navigation, 70 of which are by artificial excavation. There are several other canals, and artificial improvements of river and lake navigation.

13. Towns. Stockholm, the capital, is situated at the junction of the lake Malar with an inlet of the Baltic. It stands upon several small rocky islands and two peninsulas, and is built upon piles. A variety of picturesque views are formed by numberless rocks of granite rising boldly from the surface of the water, partly bare and craggy, partly dotted with houses, or adorned with gardens and trees. The central island is bordered by a stately row of buildings, the residences of the principal merchants. It contains the palace and other public buildings; but the houses being high, and the streets narrow, its appearance is somewhat gloomy. Constantinople is perhaps the only city in Europe that surpasses it in beauty of situation. The royal palace is hardly exceeded in splendor by any on the continent. The city has likewise an arsenal, a mint, an exchange, two theatres, the palace of the diet, numerous learned institutions, &c. The hangar, or great iron warehouse, is remarkable for the immense quantity of that article deposited in it. The commerce and manufactures are extensive. The harbor is deep and capacious, though difficult of access; a thousand sail of shipping may lie here in safety, and the largest vessels can approach close to the quay. Population 80,000.

Upsala, formerly the metropolis of Sweden, is situated on an extensive plain, upon a small stream. In the centre is a square, from which the streets extend in straight lines. This town is famous for its beautiful cathedral and for its university, which has a library of 56,000 volumes. Population 5,000.

Gothenburg or Gottenburg, near the mouth of the river Gotha, has a circumference of three miles. It is regularly fortified, and in the upper part of the town, the streets rise above each other like an amphitheatre. Some of the modern buildings are of brick, but the greater number are of wood, and painted red. The harbor is spacious and the commerce considerable. Population 27,000.

Carlscrona, on a bay of the Baltic, is the station of the Swedish navy, and has a harbor which is defended at its entrance by two strong forts. It is celebrated for its docks, which are separated from the town by a high wall, and one of which is cut out of the solid rock. Population 13,800.

Norrkoping, 10,000 inhabitants, with extensive woollen manufactures; Lund, 3,500, containing a university, observatory, and other learned establishments; Wisby, on the island of Gothland, formerly one of the principal cities of the north of Europe, and still, though much declined, carrying on a brisk trade, 4,000 inhabitants; Calmar, noted in Swedish history; and Gefle, 8,000, with an active commerce and an excellent port, are the principal Swedish towns, after those previously described. Christiania, the capital of Norway, stands in a fertile valley on the shore of a bay. It is built with regular streets which are kept very clean: there are many beautiful villas in the neighborhood, and the country around it has several productive mines. The town has a military hospital, a university, four churches, two theatres, a cathedral, and a palace, and enjoys a considerable trade in the exportation of deals, tar, and the product of the mines. Population 20,581.

Bergen stands upon a small bay skirted by mountains. It is built mostly of wood, and has a theatre, and two printing offices. The commerce and fisheries of the place are pretty active. The most noted buildings are the castle and cathedral. Population 20,844.

Drontheim is a flourishing town, containing a cathedral in which the kings of Norway are crowned, and 12,000 inhabitants.

Christiansand is chiefly important for its excellent port, into which ships often put for shelter or repairs. Population 4,000.

Wardhuus, on the Arctic Ocean, is remarkable as the most northern fortress in the world, 70° 22′ N. Lat.

14. Colony. The isle of St. Bartholomew's in the West Indies is the only foreign possession of Sweden.

15. Agriculture. The poverty of the soil and the rigor of the climate are both unfavorable to agricultural operations. Corn is not raised in sufficient quantities to supply the consumption of the inhabitants, and in the north powdered pine-bark or moss is often mixed with flour to make bread. The pasturage is generally poor, and the cattle, swine, and sheep small. Potatoes, hemp and flax, and tobacco are raised in the southern parts; barley, oats, and rye, are the only cereal grains of the northern section.

16. Commerce and Manufactures. Sweden has few manufactures and Norway even less, and the products of their manufacturing industry cannot sustain a competition with those of other countries. The working of the mines, the manufacture of glass and hardware, ship building, and the felling and preparation of timber employ many laborers. The peasants in general make their own rude implements and materials of dress. The fisheries form an important branch of industry, particularly in Norway. The maritime commerce of this country is active and extensive; and a brisk inland trade is carried on between Norway and Sweden, and between the latter and Russia. The imports are chiefly manufactured and colonial goods; the exports are iron, steel, lumber, dried and salted fish, iron wares, cordage, &c.

17. Religion and Education. Most of the inhabitants are Lutherans, the number of Calvinists, Roman Catholics, Swedenborgians, &c., being very inconsiderable. Some of the Laplanders are pagans. There are three universities, at Upsal, Lund, and Christiania, and twenty-three gymnasiums or colleges, of which eighteen are in Sweden; excellent institutions for popular instruction also exist, particularly in Sweden; elementary schools are also numerous in Norway, and the peasantry in general are able to read and write.

18. Government. The government is a constitutional monarchy, each kingdom having, however, a distinct constitution and national assembly. The Swedish diet is composed of the four orders of the kingdom, the nobility, the clergy, citizens, and peasantry, and is convened at least once in five years. The legislative body of Norway called the Storthing, is divided into two chambers called the Logthing and the Odelsthing. The executive power in Norway is administered by a viceroy or governor.

19. Inhabitants. The inhabitants belong to two distinct races, the Uralian or Finnish race, comprising the Laplanders and Finns, who are found only in the northern sections, and the Teutonic or Germanic race, to which belong the Norwegians and Swedes; the two latter people, with the Danes, form the Scandinavian family of nations. The Swedish and Norwegian dialects differ but little from each other, and are closely allied to the Danish. The habits, manners, and character of the two nations, with some minor points of difference, have a general family resemblance. The rigorous climate, pure air, and niggard soil render them hardy, vigorous, bold, and independent, and particularly in Norway, where there are fewer restraints upon the expression of opinion, and where there is no order of nobility, frankness and independence of manner are characteristic_traits. The usual food of the peasantry is milk, cheese, and fish; flesh and rye-bread in some parts of the country are luxuries. Beer and spirits are much used. Furs or sheepskins almost universally form a part of the winter dress. The Swedes and Norwegians are lively and cheerful, polite, hospitable and faithful, brave and warlike, and strongly attached to their country. They are of a middling size, stout but not corpulent, with fair, ruddy complexions and light hair. In Sweden, the inhabitants are divided into four distinct classes, the nobility, the clergy, the citizens or burgers, and the peasants, but the two latter classes are on a better footing than in the neighboring states.

The Laplanders and Finns are of entirely different origin from the Scandinavians; they are few in number, that of the former not exceeding 10,000 and that of the latter being about 2,000.

They are of a short stature, generally from four to five feet, dark complexion, mild and gentle in character, hardy and active, simple in their habits, and kind and hospitable to strangers. They dress and tan skins, make ropes of the sinews of the rein deer, construct canoes, and sledges, and weave cloth, but the higher mechanic arts are unknown to them. In summer they live in tents; in winter in low huts, covered with sods of earth and bushes, having a hole at the top to let out the sinoke. The dress is composed chiefly of skins of animals, and that of both sexes is nearly the same; it consists of a conical cap, coats of sheepskin, with the fur inward, trowsers and boots, into which are stuffed straw and rushes for stockings. Their food is chiefly fish, or the flesh and milk of the reindeer; bread is rarely to be had, but the bark of the fir tree, and some roots and leaves are eaten. Tobacco is much used, and ardent spirits are a favorite luxury, but are too scarce to be much indulged in. The wandering Laplanders rove from pasture to pasture with their large herds of reindeer, of which a wealthy individual sometimes possesses a thousand. This animal seems to have been provided for them to supply in itself all the wants to which their dreary country subjects them. Its flesh and milk furnish them with

food, its skin with clothing, and its docility enables them to employ it to carry burdens, and drag their sledges. In summer this useful creature lives upon leaves and grass, and in winter upon moss. The stationary Laplanders live by fishing and hunting.

20. History. The Scandinavians conquered this country at an early period, driving out the Finnic tribes who had previously inhabited it. The whole peninsula was subject to Denmark in the 14th century, but in the 16th Gustavus Vasa delivered Sweden from the Danish yoke, and was elected king by his countrymen. The reformation was soon after introduced into the country, and in the religious wars of the 17th century, the Swedes under their king Gustavus Adolphus, gained a brilliant military reputation. Charles XII in the beginning of the 18th century, after adding to this celebrity by a series of victories, which exhausted the blood and treasures of his subjects, was defeated at Pultowa by the Russians, and obliged to take refuge in the Ottoman dominions. Norway which had previously belonged to Denmark, was annexed to Sweden in 1814.

CXV. REPUBLIC OF CRACOW.

Boundaries, Government. This little state consists of a territory of 490 square miles, with 140,000 inhabitants, surrounded by the Austrian, Prussian, and Russian dominions. The inhabitants are chiefly Poles, but there are some Germans and Jews. The chief production is corn; there are some iron works at Kreszowice. The legislative body consists of the representatives of the corporations, the clergy, and the university; the executive authority is vested in a senate chosen by the assembly for life, and a president, chosen by the same body for two years.

The city of Cracow is the capital, and was once the capital of Poland. It has a large dilapidated castle, and a cathedral remarkable for its 50 altars and 16 chapels. Here are 70 churches and several magnificent convents. The streets are irregular. The city contains a large square, but the buildings which surround it are mean. The university is a magnificent edifice and is the most ancient seminary in Poland. Population of the city 26,000.

CXVI. RUSSIA IN EUROPE.

1. Boundaries and Extent. This empire is bounded north by the Arctic Ocean, east by Asiatic Russia, from which it is separated by the Uralian Mountains and the river Ural, south by the Caspian Sea, the Caucasian Mountains, dividing it from Asiatic Russia, the Black Sea, and the Danube which separates it from Turkey, and west by Moldavia, from which the Pruth divides it, Austria, Prussia, the Baltic Sea, the gulf of Bothnia, and the Swedish monarchy, from which it is in part separated by the Tornea. It extends from N. Lat. 40° to 70°, and from E. Lon. 180 to 64°, having an area of more than two million square miles, with about 61 million inhabitants.

2. Mountains. The Ural Mountains form the boundary between Europe and Asia. They consist of a chain 1200 miles in length, ex