Albania, is chiefly remarkable for the heroic resistance of its inhabitants the Suliots to the attacks of Ali. Arta, 9000 inhabitants, upon the gulf of the same name, and Prevesa, 8,000, upon the same gulf, are important commercial towns.

Scutari, upon the lake of the same name, contains 20,000 inhabi-` tants, who are engaged in the fisheries, shipbuilding, and the manufacturing of arms, and woollen and cotton goods. It is strongly fortified, and is one of the principal fortresses on the western frontier. Cettina is remarkable as the chief place of the district inhabited by the Montenegrins, a warlike tribe of mountaineers, who have maintained their independence of the Turks.

Bosna-Serai, in Bosnia, is a large city with strong military works, numerous mosques and baths, and an imperial palace. Its manufactures of arms, hardware, woollen and cotton goods, and leather, are important, and it is the centre of a brisk transit trade. Population 70,000.

11. Agriculture. Notwithstanding the fertility of the soil, agriculture is little known and less practised. In the northern provinces the pasture is luxuriant, and wheat might be raised in almost any quantity. In the southern parts rice is common. Barley and a kind of grain called durra are likewise cultivated. Excellent grapes are produced, with abundance of dates and olives.

12. Commerce. No country possesses greater commercial advantages than European Turkey; but they are neglected through the despotism of the government and the inactivity of the people. The internal trade is almost entirely in the hands of Greeks and foreigners. The principal exports are carpets, cotton, wool, silk, tobacco, currants, raisins, wine, hides, wax, &c. The imports are chiefly cloths, coffee, sugar, spices, glass, hardware, jewelry, paper, and slaves from Georgia and the Caucasus.

13. Manufactures. Few articles are made in sufficient quantities to supply the home consumption, and scarcely any for exportation, except carpets. Silks are manufactured in several places, but not to any great extent.

14. Education. The inhabitants are generally ignorant, and the higher education is of a very imperfect nature. There are, however, many schools in which children are taught to read and write, and in the madrasses or colleges some attempts are made at instruction in science. But in general the Koran or sacred book of the Mahometans is the whole field of Turkish learning. There are some libraries of 6,000 or 10,000 volumes, and several printing establishments.

15. Religion. The religion of the Turks is Islamism or Mahometanism, but other religious sects are allowed the profession and practice of their own rites and doctrines. The Greeks, Bosnians, and Bulgarians, are chiefly of the Greek church; many of the Albanians, Bosnians, and Armenians are Roman Catholics, but the majority of the Armenians belong to the Armenian Church. The Turks are Mahometans of the sect of the Sunnites. The sultan as caliph is the head of the church, and under him the mufti is at once the chief priest and the interpreter of the laws. The priests are divided into secular and monastic. The former (imaums, damishmends and talismans), perform the religious ceremonies in the mosques and dshamis, or chapels.

16. Government. The power of the sovereign is absolute; the supreme civil and spiritual authority being united in his person. He is styled by the Turks, Sultan (Mighty) or Padishah (lord), and by Europeans is often called Grand Signior, from the Italian, signifying great lord. The Turkish court is generally styled the Sublime Porte, from one of the gates of the seraglio bearing that name. The Sultan is not crowned like European monarchs, but girded with the sword of Mahomet.

The Koran, or sacred book of the Mussulmans, is at once the civil, political, and religious code, and the sultan, being the successor of the former caliphs, or spiritual heads of the Mahometan world, unites in himself all authority. It has long been usual, however, to exercise his powers indirectly through two lieutenants or vicegerents; the one, styled the mufti, is the head of the ministers of law and religion, called the ulemas, i. e. the learned; the other directs the civil and military affairs of the government, and is styled the grand vizier. All the officers of the empire are therefore subordinate to one of these two dignitaries. Pacha is a Turkish word signifying chief; the commander in chief of the navy is styled the capitan-pacha, and each governor of a province is styled a pacha. The pachas of the highest rank bear a banner of three horse tails; those of the second, of two, and those of the third, of one; hence they are called pachas of three tails, of two tails, also styled sangiacs, or one tail.

The supreme council of the nation is called the divan, an Arabic word signifying assembly, and is composed of the grand vizier, the mufti, the capitan-pacha, and the other heads of the administration.

As the empire has been formed by successive conquests, and the conquered provinces made their submission under different conditions, there is a great diversity in the governments of the respective provinces. Some have merely received a governor named by the sultan, and paid a certain yearly tribute, and in many instances the pachas have rendered themselves entirely independent of the Porte, and successfully resisted its arms.

17. Inhabitants. The Turks, or, as they call themselves, Osmanlis, are the dominant people, but they form less than half the population. They are of Asiatic origin, but have now been encamped upon the European soil for four centuries. The Greeks are numerous in Thessaly, Macedonia, Romelia, and Albania. The Skipetars, called by the Turks Arnaouts, and by Europeans Albanians, are originally of the same stock as the Greeks. They not only form most of the population of Albania, but they are numerous in Romelia, Bulgaria, and Macedonia. To the Sclavonic race belong the Bulgarians, the Bosnians, the Montenegrins and the Servians, in Turkish Dalmatia. The Armenians and Jews are found in all the commercial towns, and the Gypsies wander from spot to spot, as in other countries of Europe.

There is no hereditary nobility among the Turks, the only distinction being that of office, and therefore personal. The Emirs, i. e. noble, however, or descendants of Mahomet, have the exclusive right of wearing the green turban and some other inconsiderable privileges. The government recognises two distinct classes of subjects, founded upon a religious distinction, the Mussulmans or believers, and the nonmussulmans or infidels. The latter are called rayahs, i. e. the flock, and until recently have been subjected to various hardships and burdens.

But a late edict of the sultan declares all the subjects, without distinction, equal in the eye of the law. Europeans residing in the empire are known by the general name of Franks. Slavery also exists in the empire, but it is an established principle that no freeborn Mussulman can become a slave, and a slave who embraces Mahometanism, generally receives his freedom. The slaves are either so by birth, or by purchase; many of the neighboring tribes, particularly the Georgians and Circassians, having been long accustomed to sell their children of both sexes into slavery.

In regard to the habits and manners, in general, it may be observed that a great change has taken place within the present century, and particularly within the last few years; the sultan being desirous of, organizing the government and military, upon the model of other European nations, and imitating their institutions and manners.

18. Character and Manners. The Turks are in general ignorant, indifferent, and indolent; often fanatical and sensual, they are brave, honest, and faithful.

Polygamy is allowed by their laws, and is common with the rich. The women of the higher classes are generally kept separate from male society, having their own part of the house from which the men are excluded. They are uneducated and ignorant, and pass their time chiefly in the seclusion of the harem, or in enjoying the pleasures of the bath. It is an error to suppose that they are excluded from the Mahometan paradise, or that the Koran denies them to have souls.

The Turks are too grave and indolent to have many active amusements. Throwing the jereed or lance, while riding at full speed, is, however, a favorite exercise. Smoking the pipe, lounging for hours cross-legged upon a cushion or sofa, and bathing, are occupations which consume much heavy time. Frequent ablutions are required by their religion, and as they do not use linen, the frequent use of the bath is necessary for the preservation of personal cleanliness.

The Turks despise agriculture and the mechanic arts, and every thing connected with these is in a very backward state. Their houses are little more than shells, made of boards rudely put together. Their physicians rely as much upon charms, as upon medicines, and know little of the virtues of the latter, or the nature of diseases. In food the Turks are temperate; rice is much used, and boiled with mutton or fowls forms the favorite dish called pilau. Pork and wine are prohibited by the Koran; coffee is the general beverage; ardent spirits are considerably used. For travelling there are few facilities, but the only obstacles are poor roads, and the absence of inns; the caravanseries are merely places of shelter, being seldom provided with food or furniture.

The Turks have a great respect for all things connected with Mahomet; and their reverence for the Koran is extreme. They will pick up a piece of paper in the street, to see if it be not a fragment of the Koran.

The Koran prescribes the attitudes of prayer, and the time, which the Muezzin calls from the minaret of the mosque, for there are no bells. Come to prayer,' cries he in the morning, there is no God but God. Come to prayers, prayer is better than sleep.' At noon he adds, 'prayer is better than food.' The Mussulmans, when they pray, turn towards Mecca; and they are much absorbed in their prayers,

praying with great fervor and awe. The fasts are strictly kept, and in that of Ramazan, it is not lawful to taste so much as a drop of water during the day, from one new moon to another. During this fast, it is no time to solicit a favor from the devout. After the fast comes the feast of Bairam, which is carried to great excess. The mosques are generally supported by bequests of money given for religious purposes, and this is one of the few safe dispositions of it in Turkey. Wells, fountains, inns, hospitals, &c., are founded in the same way. Turks are strict in rendering alms.

The

Even the dress of the nation, which had so long remained unchanged, has been recently altered so as to approach more nearly to the European costume. The turban has been supplanted by a cap, and the long, loose robe and full drawers have given way to a short tight jacket and pantaloons. The female dress is much like that formerly worn by the males, except that the turban is not used by the women, and the face is generally covered with a veil.

The administration of justice is simple, prompt, and energetic. The common punishments are the bastinado, hanging, drowning, strangling, and impaling.

19. Army and Navy. The land forces were till recently organized upon an imperfect system, and were composed of Janissaries, topgees or artillery, and spahis or cavalry, beside a number of mercenary troops. But the corps of Janissaries was dissolved in 1826, and its members exterminated; and the army is now formed on the model of the European military; it amounts nominally to about 300,000 men, but many are badly armed and undisciplined. The naval force consists of 8 ships of the line, 8 frigates, and 10 smaller vessels.

20. History. In the thirteenth century a horde of Turks under their leader Osman laid the foundations of the Ottoman empire in Asia Minor. After reducing the neighboring countries, his successors, in the 14th century, crossed over into Europe, conquered extensive tracts belonging to the Greek empire, and in the middle of the next century captured Constantinople, the capital, and thus completed the overthrow of the Greek power. The sultans now extended their arms over Egypt, Syria, and Northern Africa. But from the middle of the 16th century the empire began to decline, and has heen successively deprived by the Russians, Austrians, Greeks, Egyptians, and French — foreign foes or rebellious subjects—of large and valuable portions of its territory.

CXXI. HELLAS OR GREECE.

1. Boundaries and Extent. Greece, or, as it is called by the natives, Hellas, is bounded north by Turkey, and on the other three sides by the sea. It is composed of the part of the continent lying south of a line drawn from the Gulf of Volo to the Gulf of Arta, and of a number of islands in the Archipelago. Its area is estimated at about 18,000 square miles, with a population of 750,000 souls.

2. Mountains. The whole country is covered with numerous mountainous ridges of considerable elevation, shooting off as spurs from the Pindus chain. Many of the summits are renowned in history. Mt. Eta 5,115 feet, terminating at the Gulf of Zeitun, forms the celebrated defile of Thermopyla, a narrow pass between the mountain and the

sea. Parnassus, now called Liakoura, 5,750 feet, Helicon 4,500 feet, Pentelicus, Hymettus, and Citharon on the mainland, and Taygetus in the peninsula of the Morea, are all famous in history.

3. Rivers. The rivers are all small; the Aspropotamus or ancient Achelous, the Cephissus, the Alpheus, and the Eurotas are among the principal.

4. Bays and Straits. The Gulf of Ægina on the east, and the Gulf of Lepanto or Corinth on the west, are separated only by the narrow isthmus of Corinth, and form the peninsula of the Morea, or Peloponnesus. The Strait of Egripo, anciently Euripus, separates the island of Negropont from the mainland. The Gulf of Volo on the northeast, and that of Arta on the northwest, form part of the boundary of the kingdom. The gulfs of Nauplia, Coron, and Colokythia are in the south.

5. Capes. Cape Matapan (anciently Tænarium) forms the southern extremity of the Morea, and is usually considered the most southerly point of Europe. Cape Colonna (anciently Sunium) is the southeastern extremity of Eastern Hellas, or the ancient Attica.

6. Islands. Negropont is separated from the mainland by the Egripo, which in some places is only a few hundred feet wide, and is crossed by bridges. The island is fertile, abounding in corn, wine, oil, and honey. It is about 100 miles in length, by from six to twenty broad.

The isles of Ægina, and Coulouri or Salamis, in the Gulf of Ægina; of Hydra and Spetzia, famous naval stations, on the eastern coast of the Morea; Paros, noted for its marble, and Antiparos for its beautiful grotto, glittering with stalactites, are among the other islands. The group to the northeast of Negropont are called the Northern Sporades; that which lies along the eastern coast of the Morea the Western Sporades, and the islands scattered along the southern entrance of the Archipelago, the Cyclades.

7. Climate and Soil. The climate is agreeable and healthy, but severe or mild, according to the prevalence of mountain, valley, or plain. In the mountains of Arcadia, and the high plains of Thessaly, the winter is long and cold, and the higher mountains are covered with Alpine plants, while the finest tropical fruits flourish in the valleys. The islands enjoy a gentle sea breeze at night which tempers the heat of the day. The soil is in general fertile, often affording a rich pasturage, where it is not suitable for tillage.

8. Divisions. The kingdom is divided into ten districts or nomoi, which are subdivided into 48 eparchies.*

9. Productions and Industry. The vine and olive have always been the most important articles of cultivation. The mulberry trees have long been carefully cultivated for the breeding of silk-worms. The rich

Capitals.

Argolis (Corinth, Hydra, Spetzia, Poros), Napoli or Nauplia.

* Nomoi.

Achaia and Elis,

Messenia,

Arcadia,

Laconia,

Acarnania and Ætolia,

Patras.

Cyparissa or Arcadia.

Tripolitza.

Misitras.

Vrachori.

Salona or Amphissa.

Athens.

Chalcis.

Hermopolis in Syra,