14. Classes of Society. In almost every European State, we find the citizens divided into four distinct classes. The first is that of the nobility, which exists in nearly every State, with the exception of Norway and the Turkish empire. Nobility is, in most cases, viewed in Europe as a hereditary rank; but it can be acquired by the will of the sovereign, and in some instances, purchased by money. The clergy form the second class of the community. The third is that of the citizens, or inhabitants of towns, which in most countries enjoys peculiar rights and privileges. The fourth and lowest class includes the peasants, and forms the mass of the population in every country.

15. Industry and Commerce. With the exception of the Calmucks, Nogays, Lapponians, and Samoiedes, in Russia, who yet lead the life of herdsmen or hunters, all the nations of Europe have been permanently settled for many centuries. The cultivation of the soil has therefore been carried to great perfection in this part of the earth. Husbandry is pursued with the greatest industry in the British empire, the Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, some parts of Italy, Denmark, and Sweden. The agriculture of the east of England and Scotland, the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, and the northern parts of France and Italy, is most distinguished; although Russia, Hungary, and Poland, whose agriculture is not nearly so advanced, are the granaries of Europe. The raising of cattle is in some countries pursued only in connection with agriculture; in the mountainous districts alone it forms the principal branch of rural industry.

The cultivation of fruits belongs to the temperate districts, particularly France and Germany; but the finer fruits can only be extensively reared in the southern parts of Europe. The manufacture of wine is most considerable in France, the south of Germany, Hungary, Spain, Portugal, Italy, and the Turkish empire. The finest kinds are produced in Hungary near Tokay, in Champagne, and Burgundy, upon the banks of the Rhine, Rhone, Moselle, and Garonne, in Spain, the two Sicilies, the banks of the Upper Douro, and some islands of the Egean Sea. The olive belongs to the warmer regions, particularly Naples, Greece, and Spain; the other vegetable oils are produced in the temperate parts of Europe. The breeding of silk-worms is also peculiar to warmer climates, and is chiefly carried on in Lombardy. The cultivation of forests has been greatly neglected in most countries, and in many a want of wood begins to be felt, although Europe is on the whole wellstocked with wood.

The fisheries are important to the coast-nations of Europe, who take herrings, tunnies, anchovies, mackerels, and other fish, from the surrounding seas. Hunting forms a principal occupation only of a few small tribes in Russia. Mining is conducted with great skill in England, Germany, Hungary, and Sweden. The river fisheries are also important. European industry is rivaled by no other part of the world, either in the diversity or the extent of its productions, although the Japanese and Chinese have cultivated some branches of art for many thousand years. Europe not only manufactures its own raw produce, but also that of almost every other region of the earth. The principal seats of European industry are Great Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Germany, and Switzerland. The best woollen fabrics are made in England and France; cotton in England, Saxony, and France; linen in Germany; lace in Brabant; silks in France; paper in Holland and Switzerland;

leather in Turkey and Russia; china in Germany; earthen-ware in England and France; glass in Bohemia and England; hard-wares in England; straw-hats in Italy; and jewelry-work in France, Germany, and England.

The internal commerce of Europe is carried on in all countries with considerable animation, and is facilitated by well constructed high-roads and canals, which are particularly good in the British empire, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Lombardy, Prussia, and Russia. The British, French, Danes, Dutch, and Swedes, are most distinguished in commercial navigation. But no nation can in this respect be compared with Great Britain, whose fleets are in every sea, and colonies in almost every region of the earth. As a medium of exchange, all European states coin, money. Many states likewise support a paper-currency, the value of which is maintained by public credit.

16. Political Divisions. Europe comprises three empires; Austria, Russia, and the Ottoman empire: one elective ecclesiastical monarchy, the Papal State: 16 kingdoins; Great Britain and Ireland, Sweden, Denmark, Prussia, Hanover, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Wurtemberg, Bavaria, Saxony, Sardinia, Naples, Greece, Spain, and Portugal: seven grand-duchies, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, Saxe-Weimar, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Oldenburg, and Tuscany: one electorate, Hesse-Cassel, the sovereign of which though styled grand-duke by the congress of Vienna, retains his former title of tor: 11 duchies; 15 principalities: one landgraviate, Hesse-Homburg; lordship, one Kniphausen: and nine republics. The last mentioned are mostly based on aristocratical principles. Of the other states it may be observed, that in regard to government they are monarchies, bearing different designations merely in reference to the titles of the respective sovereigns. There are several provinces or countries which are also styled kingdoms, but do not form independent states; as the kingdom of Norway, forming part of the Swedish monarchy;, that of Poland, in the Russian empire; of Hungary, in the Austrian empire, &c.

CXXIV. ASIATIC RUSSIA.

1. Boundaries and Extent. The Asiatic dominions of Russia are bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean: east by Behring's Strait, the sea of Okotsk, and the Pacific Ocean; south by the Chinese empire, Turkistan, Persia, the Caspian Sea, and Ottoman Asia; and west, by the Black Sea, and the Ural River and Mountains, which separate it from European Russia. They extend from Lat. 38° to 78° N., and from Lon. 36° E., to 171 W., having an area of 5,350,000 square miles, with a population of about four million inhabitants.

2. Mountains. The Ural Mountains on the western frontier, stretch from north to south for a great distance, but nowhere attain a very great elevation, the highest summits not exceeding 5,200 fect in height. The Altai Mountains stretch from east to west along the southern frontier, forming in part the boundary between the Russian and Chinese empires. This chain surrounds the sources of the Irtish and the Yenissey under the name of the Sayanian mountains; further east it extends in a northeasterly direction along the western coast of the sea of Okotsk under the name of the Stanovoy mountains, and traverses the

peninsula of Kamschatka, where it presents a series of active volcanoes. The highest summits of this great mass of mountains are from 10,000 to 12,000 feet high. Between the Caspian and Black seas are the Ćaucasian Mountains rising to an elevation of from 15,000 to 18,000 feet.

3. Rivers and Lakes. The Ob or Oby rises in the Altai Mountains, becomes navigable in the government of Tomsk, receives the Irtish, a large navigable river 1,600 miles in length, and enters the Arctic Ocean after a course of 2,400 miles. The Yenissey, the largest river of the eastern hemisphere, also rises in the Altaian chain, in the Chinese empire, passes through Lake Baikal, and taking a northerly direction flows into the Arctic Ocean; it is about 2,700 miles in length. The Lena also rises in the same mountains, and empties itself into the same sea, after receiving numerous large tributaries, during a course of upwards of 2,000 miles. The Kolyma, the Anadyr, and the Kamskatka are also large rivers. The Kur, which receives the Araxes, flows into the Caspian Sea. The Ural, which also flows into the Caspian Sea, rises on the eastern declivity of the mountains of the same name, and has a course of about 1,500 miles.

Of the lakes the principal is Lake Baikal, which is, the largest in Asia, being upwards of 400 miles long and from 15 to 50 broad; it is of great depth, but contains numerous shoals.

4. Steppes. The whole of the northern part of the country from the Ural to the ocean is a vast steppe, or level desert, interspersed with extensive marshy tracts, and some productive districts. Similar levels are found in the southwestern part, but of inferior extent.

5. Minerals. Gold, silver, platina, diamonds, and other precious stones, with iron, lead, and copper are found in the Ural and Altai Mountains. Salt is found in abundance in the steppes.

6. Climate and Soil. The whole of northern Asia from the Altaian Mountains to the Arctic Ocean is exposed to all the rigors of the polar winds, and contains vast tracts of sterile land. In the Caucasian provinces the temperature is mild, and the air dry and serene.

7. Divisions. The country between the Caspian and Black seas, called by geographers the Caucasian region, is politically divided into 12 provinces, and several districts which are only nominally dependent upon the Russian government. The vast region to the east of the Ural Mountains is known geographically under the name of Siberia, but is politically divided into the four governments of Tobolsk, Yenisseisk, Tomsk, and Irkoutsk, the two provinces of Omsk and Yakoutsk, the two districts of Okotsk, and Kamschatka, the land of the Kirghises, and the land of the Tchuktchi.

8. Towns. Tiflis, the capital of Georgia, is a handsome town with spacious streets and squares, large barracks and caravanseries, and some elegant public buildings. It has 20,000 inhabitants. Erivan is the capital of Armenia, a Persian province lately conquered by Russia. It suffered much during the war, but has 12,000 inhabitants, and is the residence of the Armenian patriarch.

Chamaki, the capital of Shirvan, and formerly a great commercial emporium of this part of Asia, has about 15,000 inhabitants.

Tobolsk, on the Irtish, is, like the other towns of Siberia, built chiefly of wood, and is liable to be inundated by the river. The streets are covered with thick planks. The population is about 25,000, engaged in carrying on an extensive trade, and manufactures of leather, soap,

and surgical instruments. In the spring the Russian traders arrive here on their way to the remote regions of Siberia, and in the autumn return hither to wait till the weather enables them to transport their goods on sledges into Europe. Caravans of Calmucks and Bucharians also spend the winter here.

Irkoutsk is the chief place of Eastern Siberia, and is a large town with 25,000 inhabitants. Its manufactures, its learned institutions, and its active commerce give it a European appearance.

Kiakta, upon the Russian frontier, is a place of much trade and great wealth.

Yakoutsk, with 3,000 inhabitants, carries on the fur trade to a great extent, and has several important fairs.

Tomsk, capital of the government of the same name, is situated upon the great route to China, and has an active trade, with some manufactures. Population 10,000. Kolyvan, a small town in the same government, is the centre of a rich silver mine district.

Okotsk, capital of the district of the same name, and Petropvlosk, capital of Kamschatka, are small towns with about 1,000 inhabitants. 9. Industry. The whole country is thinly peopled, and in many parts inhabited only by rude tribes of hunters or fishermen, or occupied by wandering shepherds. The manufactures are few and inconsiderable, and agriculture is little attended to, but the trade with China, Turkistan, Persia, Turkey, and European Russia is active and important.

10. Inhabitants. This vast country contains more than 100 tribes, differing in manners, language, and religion. The Russians and other settlers from Europe are chiefly in the towns and military stations. There are many Tartars, and colonies of them north of the Caspian and the Caucasus. The Calmucks are perhaps the most peculiar race in the empire. They are of a dark color and athletic form. They have high cheek bones, small eyes distant from each other, and enormous ears. The Tungooses occupy the central parts of Siberia. In the northern regions there are Finns and Samoiedes; the latter are short in stature, seldom exceeding five feet, and often but four. They have short legs, large flat heads, wide mouths, large ears, small angularly placed eyes, and black and bristly hair. Their complexion is an olive. The Yakouts are a large tribe on the river Lena. The Georgians and Circassians are a well formed race of men, and the females are renowned for beauty. They have fair complexions, regular features, and commanding forms. The Circassians have slender waists, and these in the men are rendered more so by a light sword belt, which they constantly wear. Besides these tribes or peoples, there are many foreigners, as Germans, Poles, Swedes, Armenians, together with a few Hindoos, Gypsies, and Jews.

11. Religion. Most of the inhabitants are Christians of the Greek church; but there are many Mahometans among the Tartar tribes; and the Samoiedes, Yakouts, Tungooses, and some others are idolaters. The Calmucks are Buddhists.

12. Character, Manners. Among a people so various as the inhabitants of Asiatic Russia, there must be a great diversity of manners and customs. In some of the towns of Siberia there is considerable intelligence. There is in all great hospitality and much social intercourse, and the provinces are better residences than Central Russia; many of the exiles in Siberia are banished only for their virtues. The gayety

of the Siberians is somewhat rude; but their hospitality is deserving all commendation. The Tungooses occupy nearly a third of Siberia. They are hospitable, improvident, honest, and faithful to their word. They bear privation with wonderful endurance, and when they are forced to kill a reindeer for want of food, they refrain till they have fasted a week or more. They are filthy in the extreme. They smoke, and drink spirits whenever they can obtain them. The Yakouts are quick and observing. Many of the Tartars and Calmucks are nomades. They are cheerful and much given to equestrian exercises, and the women ride better than the men. The Samoiedes live without rulers. The Kamschadales are in a great degree independent, honest, and veracious. The Georgians and Circassians are a rude people, addicted to violence. The latter live in a feudal state in which the princes are paramount, the nobles next in authority, and the main body of the people are serfs. The princes give their children to the nobles to be educated, and seldom see them till they are of age. The Circassians carry the principal of revenge to an unlimited extent. Blood for blood is so far the practice, that the innocent are involved with the guilty, and the duty of redressing an injury is hereditary.

The form of dress is nearly as various as the people. In the northern countries, it consists for a great part of the year in furs, while the Calmucks have scarcely any clothing but a strip of cloth about the waist. The dress of the Tartars is chiefly a striped silk and cotton shirt, a short tunic, and over this a caftan or eastern robe, girded with a sash. Short boots and loose drawers are worn. In summer the head is covered with a turban, in winter, with a helmet of wood. The dwellings are of almost every form. In the Siberian towns, the Russian mode of building is somewhat followed. The Tartars have neat cottages, whitewashed, and with gardens attached. The Tungooses dwell in tents. The Kamschadales live in villages, built like those of Russia. Many Georgians dwell in huts half sunk in the earth, and the Circassians, in cottages of wood and plaited osiers. The food is different in various parts. In Siberia fish forms the chief article of food. The Tartars eat the flesh of horses, or whatever they can the most easily obtain. All of the Tartar race make use of koumiss, a spirit drawn from mare's milk.

CXXV. OTTOMAN ASIA OR TURKEY IN ASIA.

1. Boundaries and Extent. Asiatic Turkey is bounded north by the Black Sea and Russia; east by Russia and Persia; south by Arabia, Egyptian Asia, and the Mediterranean, and west by the Archipelago. It extends from 30° to 42° N. Lat., and from 26° to 49° E. Long., comprising about 400,000 square miles, with 8,000,000 inhabitants.

2. Mountains. Asia Minor and Armenia are mountainous countries. In Armenia is Mount Ararat, 17,300 feet above the sea, and believed by the inhabitants to be the eminence on which Noah's Ark rested. The chain of Mount Taurus extends westerly from Armenia, and intersects by numerous branches the greatest part of Asia Minor. Its highest summits have an elevation of from 12,000 to 15,000 feet.

3. Rivers and Lakes. The largest river of this country is the Euphrates. It rises in two broad streams in the mountains of Armenia,