other services of the day the reading of the commandments is omitted, and the last service is always to be concluded with the doxology. Formerly, the apostles' creed was recited, and a clerk (voorlezer), who was also chorister, conducted the opening services from his desk below the pulpit by reading the commandments and a chapter, and announcing and leading in the singing of a psalm. The minister had an hour glass standing on the pulpit, to measure the time to be occupied by the sermon, which was recommended not to exceed an hour. On some part of every Sabbath a portion of the Heidelberg catechism was expounded. Great care was from the first taken in the instruction of the young. Children were almost universally baptized, and provision was made for their instruction in Christian doctrine by parents, church officers, and schoolmasters. The school was an appendage of the church, taught by a schoolmaster appointed by the consistory, and was constantly visited by the minister and elders. The school came with the church into this country, but the continued connection became in time impracticable. Interest has lately been reawakened in this subject, and parochial schools have been established in a number of congregations. In public worship only such psalms and hymns are sung as have been recommended by the general synod. Singing in the English language was introduced in 1767. In 1813 the Rev. Dr. Livingston, by order of the general synod, compiled the "Book of Psalms and Hymns" now in use, to which, however, large additions of hymns have subsequently been made. The observance of the principal feast days, as Christmas, Easter, Ascension, and Whitsuntide, was denounced by the early synods in the Netherlands; but as it was found that the people would otherwise devote them to their pleasures, it was afterward ordained that public worship should be conducted on them, and they thus be turned to profit. In accordance with this they were for a long time carefully observed by the church in America, nor has respect for them ceased in some of the congregations at this day. The government of the church is according to the Genevan presbyterian model. The officers are ministers, elders, and deacons, to which may be added professors of theology. The elders have in connection with the ministers the spiritual oversight of the church. They receive, watch over, dismiss, and discipline members. The board of elders corresponds to the session in the Presbyterian church. The deacons collect and administer alms. The minister, elders, and deacons, or the elders and deacons if there be no minister, compose the consistory, to which the government of the individual church belongs. In the great majority of cases they are also the trustees to whom the management of the temporalities is committed. The elders and deacons are elected on the organization of a church by the male communicants, and subsequently VOL. XIV.-2

either by the consistory or the male communicants, and in both cases their names are published to the congregation for approval. They hold office for two years, at the expiration of which term they may be reelected. The classis corresponds to the presbytery in the Presbyterian church, and is composed of a number of ministers, with elders delegated, one from each church within a certain district. The classis is a court of appeal from the judicial decisions of consistories. It approves of calls, dissolves pastoral connections, and ordains and deposes ministers. The particular synods, of which there are three, those of New York, Albany, and Chicago, are delegated bodies composed of two ministers and two elders from each classis within the bounds of the synod. These are courts of appeal from the decisions of the classes; they form new classes, and transfer congregations from one classis to another. The general synod is the highest court of appeal, and is composed of three ministers and three elders from every classis in the connection. It constitutes particular synods, appoints theological professors, has the management of the theological seminary and the various boards, and exercises a general supervisory power over the concerns of the church. It cannot alter or amend the constitution of the church, but may recommend alterations, which can be adopted only by the votes of a majority of the classes.-The reports of 1860 give the following statistics: particular synods, 3; classes, 31; churches, 370; ministers, 387; communicants, 50,427; contributions, $125,010.82. "The Christian Intelligencer," which is devoted to the interests of the church and mainly supported by its members, is the oldest religious weekly in the city of New York next to the "New York Observer," having been established in 1828.

REFRIGERANTS. See FREEZING MIXTURES. REFRIGERATOR, an ice chest in which articles of food are placed with ice for the purpose of keeping them cool, and thus preserving them from spoiling. This is an important American invention, introduced not many years since, and now almost a necessary article of household furniture. It is also of great service in market houses and upon freight trains, wherever fresh meat or fish is kept on hand, particularly in southern cities. In its common form it may be a mere box with shelves and a cover opening at the top, or doors at the side; but this is an objectionable arrangement both as regards economy of room and the admission of warm air whenever the chest is opened; and moreover meats are toughened and otherwise injured by contact with ice. In its most perfect form the refrigerator is lined throughout with zinc, leaving a space all around filled with air or any other good non-conductor of heat, as fine charcoal, &c. It is provided with drawers like those of a bureau, except that they do not extend quite to the back, a partition being placed so as to leave a space of about an inch

remedy in cases of wrongful distress. The object was to prevent the beasts of the plough, cattle, and other goods of the tenant in arrear from being unjustly or excessively distrained by the landlord, lest, as Littleton observes, "the husbandry of the realm and men's other trades might thereby be overthrown or hindered." At the common law a distress (which implies both the thing taken and the manner of taking it) was considered merely as a pledge or security for the rent, for damage feasant, or for service due from the tenant to his superior lord, and a means of enforcing its payment or performance. It could not be sold or disposed of by the distrainor, but he was compelled to hold it as a pledge until payment or other satisfaction was made. For this reason, until the law was altered by statute 2 William and Mary, 1, c. 5, which authorized the distrainor, with the assistance of the sheriff, to have the distress appraised by competent appraisers, and sold for the highest price which it would bring, unless regularly replevied by the tenant or owner within 5 days after seizure, beasts of the plough and the tools of a man's trade could not be distrained, lest by depriving him of these he should also be deprived of the ability to redeem them. There were two ways in which a distress could be replevied, one according to the common law, and the other by statute. The common law allowed the owner a writ de replegiari facias, which was sued out of the court of chancery and directed to the sheriff of the county in which the distress was taken, commanding him to redeliver it to the owner upon receiving sufficient sureties therefor, and afterward to determine the ownership and do justice as to the matter in dispute between the parties, in his county court. The statute of Marlbridge, on the other hand (52 Henry III., c. 21), provided that, without sueing out a writ, the sheriff or any of his deputies (of whom 4 were appointed in each county for the express purpose of making replevins) should, immediately upon complaint being made to him, proceed to replevy the goods. The owner was then obliged to give satisfactory security to two ends: first, plegios de prosequendo, or pledges to prosecute his suit to final judgment; and second, plegios de retorno habendo, or pledges to return the distress again to the distrainor, if the right should be determined against him. These pledges were discretionary, and the sheriff was responsible for their sufficiency; and in addition to them the statute required a bond with two sureties, for double the value of the goods taken, also conditioned to prosecute the suit and return the goods. This bond was to be assigned to the avowant or person making cognizance, on request to the officer, and if forfeited it could be sued by the assignee. If the sheriff neglected to take a bond, or if he accepted insufficient pledges, the party might have an action against him and recover double the value of the goods distrained, but no more. In special cases the common law allowed

a man to have replevin of goods not distrained; as, if the mesne ford put his own cattle in place of those of the tenant paravail, or lowest tenant, whom he was bound to acquit, he might have replevin of these cattle though they never had been distrained. The owner of goods distrained might also replevy them although his grant by deed contained a special condition that the distress should be irreplevisable, and that the landlord should keep it as a gage or pledge until the rent were paid; because it was held to be incompatible with the nature of a distress that it should be irreplevisable, and in an old case of this nature the court awarded "that the defendant should gage deliverance or else go to prison." The sheriff, upon receiving the required security, was at once to cause the distress to be returned to the party from whom it was taken, unless the distrainor himself claimed the goods as his property; for if they were, the law permitted him to keep them, irrespective of the manner in which he had regained possession. If therefore the distrainor claimed any such right or property, the party replevying was obliged to sue out another writ called a writ de proprietate probanda, by which the sheriff was to determine, by an inquest, who was really the owner of the property before the distress was levied thereon. If it were decided against the claim of the distrainor, the sheriff proceeded to replevy as if no such claim had been made; but if his claim was found to be good and valid, the sheriff could proceed no further, but was to return the claim to the court of king's bench or common pleas, to be there prosecuted and finally decided. goods, in ordinary cases, being delivered back by the sheriff to the party replevying, he was then compelled to prosecute his suit or action of replevin in the county court, though either party might remove it to the superior court of king's bench or common pleas; and indeed, in order to save trouble and delay, it was usually carried up in the first instance to the courts of Westminster hall, because if, in the course of proceeding in the county court, any right of freehold came in question, the sheriff could proceed no further. Upon action being brought, the distrainor, who was now the defendant, made avowry; that is, he avowed taking the distress, and set forth the right in which and the cause for which he took it, as for rent in arrears, damage done, or other cause; or if he justified in another's right, as bailiff or servant, he was said to make cognizance; that is, he acknowledged the taking, and claimed that it was legal as being done at the command of one who had a right to levy the distress; and upon the legal merits of this avowry or cognizance the cause was determined. If the action were decided in favor of the plaintiff, and the distress declared to be wrongful, he was entitled to keep the goods which he had already got back into his possession, and in addition should recover damages for the wrongful seizure and detention; but if the defendant prevailed, he

The

tions which demonstrated the incorrectness of the Alphonsine tables. In 1474 he published his Kalendarium Novum, for 1475, 1494, and 1513. This was the first astronomical almanac issued in Europe, and the whole edition was speedily sold, though the price was 12 golden crowns. Pope Sixtus IV., to secure the services of Regiomontanus in the reformation of the calendar, appointed him archbishop of Ratisbon; and in July, 1475, he proceeded to Rome, but died before the work was commenced. He was the most learned astronomer that Europe had produced up to his time. To him we also owe the introduction of decimal fractions, and the science of trigonometry was developed by him to nearly its present condition.

REGNARD, JEAN FRANÇOIS, a French dramatist, born in Paris in 1647, or according to Beffara, Feb. 8, 1655, died Sept. 5, 1709. When 20 years old he inherited from his father a considerable fortune, and visited Italy, where he led a licentious life, and won largely in gambling. After a second visit, he set sail in 1678, in the same ship with a married Provençal lady with whom he had fallen in love, from Civita Vecchia for Toulon; but being captured by Algerine pirates, they were sold into slavery and taken to Constantinople, where he was employed as a cook. At the end of two years, with 12,000 livres sent by his family, he procured the release of himself and the lady. Hearing on their return to France that her husband was dead, Regnard was about to marry her when the husband reappeared. He then spent two years in northern travel, and returned to Paris in the beginning of 1683, to lead a life of luxury and elegance, writing plays, and engaging in a literary warfare with Boileau. Ir 2396 he produced at the théâtre Français his 5-act comedy Le joueur, one of the masterpieces of the French stage. He also wrote books of travel, &c. The last edition of his complete works is that of Alfred Michiels (2 vols. 8vo., 1855).

REGNAULT, HENRI VICTOR, a French physicist and chemist, born in Aix la Chapelle, July 21, 1810. He holds the position of engineerin-chief of mines and director of the imperial manufactory of porcelain at Sèvres, and is also professor of physics at the college of France, and of chemistry in the polytechnic school. His attention has been devoted chiefly to heat in its combinations with matter, and he was the first to demonstrate that the latent heat of steam diminishes as the sensible heat increases, but in a slower proportion. He has also verified the law of Mariotte and Boyle on the compressibility of the gases. Accounts of his investigations on these subjects fill the 21st vol. of the Mémoires of the French academy of sciences. Analogous researches on the specific heat of solids and liquids, on hygrometry, on the respiration of animals and kindred topics, have from time to time been published in the Annales de chimie et de physique. He is also the author of an elementary treatise on chemistry, translated into several European languages.

REGNIER, MATHURIN, a French satirist, born in Chartres, Dec. 21, 1573, died in Rouen, Oct. 22, 1613. He was employed in the diplomatic service, and received from Henry IV. a pension of 2,000 livres. His works comprise 16 satires, 3 epistles, 5 elegies, and a few sacred and miscellaneous short poems.

REGULAR CLERKS OF ST. PAUL. See BARNABITES.

REGULUS (Lat., a petty king or chieftain), a name applied by the alchemists to antimony, from their belief that this metal would lead them to the discovery of the philosopher's stone. It was afterward applied to other metals, as bismuth, and is now used to designate the crude metal obtained in some smelting operations previous to its being refined. (See COPPER SMELTING.)

REGULUS, MARCUS ATILIUS, a Roman general, consul in 267 B. C., when he defeated the Sallentini, took Brundusium, and received the honor of a triumph. In 256, the 9th year of the first Punic war, he was a second time consul, and in conjunction with his associate, L. Manlius Vulso Longus, set out with a fleet of 330 vessels to invade Africa. The Carthaginian fleet of 350 sail, under Hanno and Hamilcar, encountered them, but the Romans were victorious, 94 of the enemy's vessels being either captured or destroyed. The Romans now passed over into Africa, landed at Clypea, and ravaged the Carthaginian territory. Toward the close of the year, by order of the senate, Manlius returned to Rome with his division of the forces. Regulus now captured town after town, including Tunis, within 20 miles of Carthage, having previously attacked the Carthaginian army in the mountains, where their cavalry and elephants could be of no service, and defeated it with a loss of 15,000 men killed and 5,000 taken prisoners. The Carthaginians sued for peace, but when the envoys protested against the extravagance of his demands, Regulus replied: "Men who are good for any thing should either conquer or submit to their betters." The negotiations were broken off, and Xanthippus, a Spartan, was placed at the head of the Carthaginian army, who defeated the Romans and took Regulus prisoner. After 5 years' captivity, he was sent (250) to Rome along with a Carthaginian embassy, on condition that he would return if the negotiations were unsuccessful. But instead of advocating peace, he dissuaded his countrymen from it, telling them that his own life was of no consequence, and that moreover a slow poison had been given him, of which he would soon die. When by his persuasions the senate refused to make peace, he returned to Carthage. It is said that he was killed in a chest, the inside of which was covered with iron spikes; and others relate that his eyelids were cut off, and he was then confined in a dark dungeon, from which he was suddenly exposed to the sun. The accounts of his execution are now generally disbelieved.

against ordinary enemies; the nimble lizard darts into its hole, perhaps at the expense of a part of its tail, which is soon reproduced; the great boas can prevail over every foe but man; many serpents are armed with poisonous fangs, rarely used however except on the defensive; some are covered with bristling spines, like the horned lizards, and are thus saved from predaceous animals. They are of great use to man in destroying noxious insects and other animals; some, like the chelonians, furnish a wholesome and abundant food, and others supply various articles useful in the arts. They are preyed upon by carnivorous birds, as eagles, storks, cranes, and the ibis, and by such mammals as the ichneumon, hog, and the smaller carnivora; they are themselves essentially carnivorous, and feed on living prey which they swallow whole, but the marine turtles are principally herbivorous.-The osteology of reptiles has been given sufficiently in the various articles above referred to. Except in chelonians, the form is generally elongated, more or less cylindrical, with a very long tail; the feet are absent in serpents and in some saurians, and 4 in the others; the skeleton is always osseous, the cranium small, and the facial bones and jaws greatly developed, the latter usually armed with sharp, hooked teeth; the toes are freely movable, and usually with strong claws, webbed in the crocodiles and turtles. The body is covered with scales, generally appendages of the true skin; the overlying epidermis is cast off periodically; these are converted into bony plates in the chelonians and crocodiles, and in lizards and serpents are often brilliant with metallic reflections; in the chameleon, anolis, &c., the surface modifications of the skin present very rapid changes of color, sometimes expressing the anger or fear of the animal, and in some cases enabling them to avoid detection by their enemies. The muscles of reptiles are red, though paler than in mammals and birds; they preserve their irritability for a long time after the death of the animal, in chelonians even after many days; tortoises have been known to live for 18 days after the removal of the brain, groping blindly about. The brain is small, with cerebrum, cerebellum, and medulla oblongata; they have also a spinal system of nerves, and a sympathetic or ganglionic chain; in most the spinal marrow is relatively much more developed than the brain, the latter being smooth, without convolutions, the cerebral lobes being the largest; the cerebral hemispheres contain lateral ventricles, and are larger than the optic lobes, which in fishes constitute the greater part of the brain; there is no pons Varolii, and the cerebellum is more developed than in fishes. Life seems in a remarkable degree independent of the brain, the class rather vegetating than living, and being comparatively insensible to pain; they grow slowly and live long, and are exceedingly tenacious of life; the intelligence is hardly greater than in fishes. The sense of touch is dull, both

active and passive, and whether exercised by the skin, toes, lips, tongue, or tail; taste must also be dull, as the food is swallowed without mastication, and the sense of smell must be still less. The organ of hearing is less developed than in birds and mammals; there is no external ear; the tympanum where it exists is bare and almost external, and the internal ear is less developed than in fishes. The eyes are usually small, occasionally absent, flat, with incomplete bony orbits, with lids (except in serpents), and with lachrymal glands. The nasal cavities are of large size, and always communicate with the mouth, and in the crocodiles very far back. The lungs are sometimes of large size, extending even through the whole length of the ventral cavity, which has no diaphragm; in the long-bodied snakes only one lung is active, the other being very rudimentary or absent; these organs are comparatively free, the trachea not divided into bronchi, and the air cells few, of large size, and freely communicating with each other; in lizards and serpents the ribs serve for respiration, and in tortoises the scapular arch performs the office of ribs, according to Van der Hoeven, respiration not being effected by deglutition. Only & small portion of the blood is sent to the lungs, and this is feebly oxygenated, as the respiration is performed slowly and the lung is of loose texture and small capacity; hence a low degree of animal heat, languid movements, and a slow performance of the nutritive functions. They have no true epiglottis and no proper voice, though some emit a hissing sound (as the chelonians) formed in the mouth. The heart has 4 cavities, but the ventricles communicate, except in the crocodilians, where an admixture of the arterial and venous bloods takes place in the great vessels; there is, therefore, a partial circulation independent of respiration, enabling them to remain long under water and in irrespirable gases. The lymphatic system is greatly developed, having regular pulsating organs or lymphatic hearts for the propulsion of their fluid. Reptiles eat and drink comparatively little, and are able to go a long time without food; not having movable and fleshy lips, they cannot perform the act of suction, as was once popularly believed of serpents; the mouth is generally large, and the lower jaw articulated by a distinct bone, the homologue of the os quadratum of birds. The tongue is generally free, and the oesophagus very wide and distensible to accommodate a large-sized prey; the intestine is short and straight in proportion to the carnivorous disposition, being longest in the herbivorous chelonians and shortest in the snakes; there is a certain division into small and large intestine, though the latter in most is properly the rectum; the alimentary canal opens below into a cloaca, or cavity common to the digestive, urinary, and reproductive organs, as in birds; all the nutritive elements are extracted from the food, the indigestible matters being

tepec, where he led the folorn hope. After the close of the war, Capt. Reid left New York in 1849 to fight for the Hungarians during their struggle with Austria; but by the time he reached Paris the insurrection had been quelled. He has since resided in London, and has written a series of very popular books for boys. Among his novels the best are: "The Rifle Rangers" (1849), "The Scalp Hunters" (1850), "The Quadroon" (1856), and "Osceola” (1858).

REID, THOMAS, a Scottish metaphysician, born in Strachan, Kincardineshire, April 26, 1710, died Oct. 7, 1796. He was graduated at Marischal college, Aberdeen, in 1726, and in 1736 was presented to the neighboring living of New Machar. It was his custom to preach the sermons of Tillotson and Evans rather than his own compositions, and he was already chiefly interested and engaged in studying metaphysics. In 1748 he published a paper in the London "Philosophical Transactions," in which he opposed the introduction of mathematical formulas into metaphysical and moral speculations, and particularly criticized the statement of Hutcheson that the benevolence or moral merit of an agent is "proportional to a fraction having the moment of good for the numerator, and the ability of the agent for the denominator." He was elected in 1752 professor of philosophy in King's college, his department comprehending logic, ethics, mathematics, and physies. His "Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense" (1764) aimed at the refutation of Hume's sceptical theory; and the work was submitted to Hume before publication, who wrote on returning it: "I have read your performance with great pleasure and attention. It is certainly very rare that a piece so deeply philosophical is wrote with so much spirit, and affords so much entertainment to the reader." Affirming the impos'sibility of proving the existence of an external world from reason, or experience, or instruction, or habit, or any other principle hitherto known to philosophers, Reid introduced the doctrine of an original instinct or common sense as the ground of the belief. In 1764 he was transferred to the university of Glasgow as successor of Adam Smith in the chair of moral philosophy. His course included metaphysics, moral philosophy, natural law, and political right. He was a member of a philosophical Society before which he read several essays, including an "Examination of Dr. Priestley's Opinion concerning Matter and Mind," "Observations on the Utopia of Sir Thomas More," and "Physiological Reflections on Muscular Motion." In 1781 he withdrew from public duties in order to devote himself exclusively to philosophical studies. In 1785 he published his "Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man," consisting of his academical lectures, and in 1788 his "Essays on the Active Powers of Man," his last important work. An edition of his works with notes and dissertations was prepared by Sir William Hamilton (incomplete, 1846).

REID, SIR WILLIAM, a British meteorologist, born at Kinglassie, Fifeshire, in 1791, died in London, Oct. 21, 1858. He was educated at the royal military academy at Woolwich, and entered the army as lieutenant of royal engineers in 1809. He served under the duke of Wellington in the peninsula, distinguishing himself on several occasions, was in America in the war of 1812, and again served under the duke in Belgium in 1815. In 1816 he took part, with the rank of captain, in the attack on Algiers. He subsequently became adjutant of the corps of sappers and miners, and a diligent student of science, and in 1839 was elected a fellow of the royal society. In 1838 he was appointed governor of Bermuda, and by his tact and skill greatly improved the agriculture of the island, which was in a deplorable condition at the time of his appointment. Through his efforts its vegetable products were introduced into the New York market, and there commanded high prices. His solicitude for the interests of the islanders endeared him greatly to them, and he is remembered to this day as "the good governor." He was appointed governor of the Windward islands in 1846, and in 1848 returned to England, and was appointed commanding engineer at Woolwich. During the great exhibition of 1851 he was actively engaged in the promotion of its objects, being a part of the time chairman of the executive committee. In Sept. 1851, he was appointed governor of Malta, and was knighted. He held that position through the Crimean war, and returned to England in 1858. Gen. Reid's interest in meteorology dates from 1831, when he was detailed to superintend the repairs of the injury done at Barbados by a severe hurricane. His inquiries first took definite form from the perusal of an article on the subject in the "American Journal of Science" of 1831, by Mr. W. C. Redfield, with whom he immediately opened a correspondence, which was maintained to the close of Mr. Redfield's life, and which has been deposited in the library of Yale college. Gen. Reid published "An Attempt to develop the Law of Storms by means of Facts, arranged according to Place and Time" (1838), and “The Progress of the Development of the Law of Storms," &c. (1849).

REIMARUS, HERMANN SAMUEL, a German scholar, born in Hamburg, Dec. 22, 1694, died there, March 1, 1768. He early devoted his attention to the study of languages, was educated at Jena and at Wittenberg, made in 1720 a journey through Belgium and a great part of England, became in 1723 rector in Wismar, and in 1727 received the professorship of the Hebrew language in the gymnasium of Hamburg, afterward united with the professorship of mathematics, which he held till his death. He married in 1728 the daughter of J. A. Fabricius, and his philological acquisitions were of great service in aiding the literary labors of his father-in-law. He wrote various works on classical and other subjects, and it is now proved