dead is separated from the living bone; after the pairing season has passed the circulation stops in the horns, and they become dry and dead, and separate from the frontal bone by absorption carried on by the Haversian canals; these, acting on one plane through the whole thickness of the bone just below the burr, remove the solid materials around them, so that each canal finally unites its cavity with that of an adjoining one; when this has extended entirely across the base the antler falls. Prof. J. Wyman ("Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History," vol. vii. p. 168, 1859) regards the antlers as dermal bones rather than parts of the internal skeleton, because they are developed in the integuments by a special centre of ossification, and become attached to the frontal only after ossification has somewhat advanced. In the hollow horns of the ox, sheep, and antelopes, the frontal bony cores are cylindrical shafts, more or less solid, protected by periosteum and an extension of the true skin, of which the epidermic portion is developed into a dense horny sheath; in most the frontal sinuses extend into the cores.-The cervical vertebræ are always 7; the dorsals usually 13, but 12 in the camel and 14 in the giraffe; the lumbar 6, but 5 in the giraffe and 7 in the camel; sacral 4, but 5 in the ox and 3 in the musk deer; the caudals vary from 12 in the goat to 18 in the ox and 20 in the giraffe, the whole number ranging from 42 in the goat to 50 in the giraffe. The bodies of the cervicals are much lengthened in the camel and giraffe, and articulated by a ball and socket joint, and the spinous and transverse processes are short; the dorsals are remarkable for their long spinous processes for the attachment of the ligamentum nucha which suspends the head; the transverse processes of the lumbar, as in the ox, are largely developed, but smaller in the swift and supple antelopes and deer; the chest is compressed laterally; the ribs and pelvic bones are stout in the camels and ox, and more slender in the deer; the sternum is flattened, and attenuated in front; the clavicles are always entirely absent, hence there is no prehensile power in the fore limbs; the scapula is triangular, the apex downward, its neck much elongated, the coracoid process rudimentary or absent, and the infraspinous fossa much the largest; the humerus is massive according to the strength and activity of the species, and is connected to the bones of the forearm by a simple hinge joint; the radius and ulna are intimately united and always in the condition of pronation (with the palmar surface backward), the upper end of the ulna being very thick; the wrist contains always at least 6, and in the camel and giraffe 7 bones, in 2 rows; the metacarpus is represented by a cannon bone, itself made up of the 3d and 4th bones, and sometimes has 2 splint bones, the homologues of the 2d and 5th; in those having more than 2 hoofs, the supplementary ones are rudimentary, and do not under ordinary circumstances reach the ground;

the hind limbs, taking the individual bones, are longer than the fore; there is nothing peculiar in the femur, the patella is comparatively small, the tibia has a remarkably prominent spine, and the fibula, when present, is extremely rudimentary; the tarsus consists of 5 bones, and the metatarsus is composed as the metacarpus. The cloven hoof imparts elasticity to the spring, and enables the foot to be more easily withdrawn from soft ground as well as to sink less readily in mud or snow; to prevent injurious friction between the hoofs, a special glandular apparatus secretes a lubricating matter; the two small accessory hoofs are of great use to these animals in descending steep declivities.-In those which have incisors in the lower jaw only, the opposing surface in the upper jaw is a hardened pad-like gum; these tear rather than cut during feeding, accompanied by a swinging movement of the head forward, which is easily effected by the powerful muscles of the neck; when 8 incisors are present, the outer 2 have been regarded by some as canines. The molars are widely separated from the incisors, the 3 posterior or the true molars being composed of 2 columns in the upper jaw convex internally and flat with 3 prominent ribs externally; in the lower jaw the convex surface is external and the flat internal; they are surrounded by a thick layer of enamel, folded inward so as to form 2 semilunar figures in each column, in the worn teeth presenting 4 crescentic enamel folds whose interstices are filled with dentine; the 3 anterior molars have each a single column with 2 crescents of enamel; their crowns are quadrilateral, with convoluted margins, admirably adapted for the mastication of the coarse vegetable substances which constitute most of the food of ruminants. The last 3 molars are not replaced, but the anterior 3 are; from this the jaws of young animals may be easily recognized. The tongue generally performs the office of prehension as well as deglutition; the anterior part collects and judges by the touch of the nature of the food, the next portion prepares the morsel and thrusts it backward toward the œsophagus, and the basal part regulates the movements of the whole organ from its insertion in the hyoid bone; the papillæ, fungiform and filiform in front, conical and circumvallate behind, are largely developed. The salivary glands are large, with long ducts; tonsils bulky, and oesophagus thick and muscular. The stomach is fourfold, the first 3 cavities (paunch, honeycomb bag, and manyplies) being essentially dilatations of the oesophagus for the purpose of rumination, and leading to the 4th or true digestive cavity; in the 4th, the only one developed in the newly born animal, there is in the calf an organic acid secreted, possessing the power of converting the albumen of milk into curd or whey, in the prepared condition called rennet. Concretions of balls of hair, the results of hairs swallowed when licking their own or others' hides, felted together by

the movements of the stomach, and incrusted with a polished earthy deposit of great hardness, are often found in the stomachs of ruminants, especially of the cow. The intestinal canal is very long and of simple construction; compared to the length of the body it is, according to Meckel, as 12 to 1 in the camel and deer, 22 to 1 in the ox, and 28 to 1 in the sheep; the large intestine is often scarcely wider than the small; the cæcum is always large, smooth, and without lateral bulgings. The liver is simple, small, and wedge-shaped, slightly divided into lateral lobes; in the camels and deer there is no gall bladder, but it is always present in the hollow-horned ruminants; the pancreas and spleen are comparatively small. In the heart the auricles are relatively small as compared with the ventricles; in some (in common with pachyderms) there are 1 or 2 small ossifications in the partition between the ventricles; the aorta close to the heart divides into 2 unequal trunks, the smaller passing forward and supplying the head, and the larger descending backward; the internal carotids give off many tortuous and intercommunicating branches within the cavernous sinus, like the retia mirabilia in the sloths, seals, and cetaceans, in other parts than the head; according to Weigel, the portal vein is furnished with valves. Most have the right lung divided into 4 lobes, and the left into 2; the thymus gland is extensively developed; the fat is very brittle, and is called suet to distinguish it from the softer lard of the hog. The brain is long and oval, and relatively small, that of the ox compared to that of man, considering the size of the body, being as 1 to 24; the hemispheres are smaller in proportion to the cerebellum and medulla oblongata than they are in man; the convolutions are numerous, and the cerebellum is divided into several irregular lobules; the base is flattened, and the posterior pair of the tubercula quadrigemina are in most much smaller than the anterior; the lateral ventricles intercommunicate; the spinal cord and cerebral and spinal nerves are large. The eyes are wide apart, and so prominent that the range of vision is very extensive; the opening of the pupil is transverse, and the tapetum is exceedingly brilliant. The senses of hearing and smell are highly developed, and the cranial sinuses are extensive. The urinary bladder is generally of large size; the testes are included in a pendulous scrotum, and the vesicula seminales are largely developed; in the musk deer there is a special glandular pouch communicating with the preputial cavity, from which is obtained the substance musk, once extensively used as an antispasmodic and as a perfume. The uterus is prolonged above into 2 horns, which are furnished with glandular protuberances, highly vascular, with eminences and depressions for the implantation of the tufted filaments of the placental cotyledons; these are productions of the chorion, of an oval or rounded shape, and

come away with the membranes after parturition; they are 70 to 100 in the sheep and cow, and are not found in the camels; the amnios is also highly vascular. The mammæ are inguinal, and the teats 4, except in sheep and goats, which have only two. The panniculus. carnosus muscle is remarkably and extensively developed, serving as a means of defence by shaking off flies and other stinging insects from the skin. In the camel there is a remarkable hump on the back, consisting principally of adipose matter developed in the subcutaneous areolar tissue, probably serving as a storehouse of nutriment to the animal during its long journeys. The hair is generally coarse, and never what would be called fur; it varies from the harsh and shaggy coat of the camel and the somewhat softer one of the llama to the fine wool of the sheep. Rumination is rendered necessary by the bulky character of the food as compared with its nutrient qualities; the timid animals of this order are naturally forced to take in a large amount of food in a short time, and then to flee from the carnivorous beasts always lying in wait for them to some retired place where they can remasticate it quietly; such is the air of quiet content in a ruminating animal, that this act is universally regarded as the type of peaceful and happy moments. In camels the bolus is triturated alternately from side to side; in horned ruminants and in the giraffe it is always in one direction, either from right to left or from left to right.-Ruminants embrace the animals most usful to man and the most easily domesticated; whole races of men count their wealth by the numbers they possess of them, whether camels, llamas, goats, sheep, reindeer, or cattle; they are among mammals what the galline are among birds; their flesh and milk are consumed as food, their skins, hair, wool, and horns are employed in the arts, and indeed almost every part is convertible into some product useful to man. Ruminants are distributed all over the world except in Australia; the reindeer and musk ox are found in the polar regions of both hemispheres, the llamas and alpacas in South America, the camels in Asia and Africa, the giraffe and most antelopes in Africa, and the deer everywhere in suitable feeding places; in North America there are only 2 antelopes, only one of the sheep family, and 2 of the ox family; there are no hollow-horned ruminants in South America as original species, though there are vast herds of wild cattle of foreign introduction. The distribution of fossil ruminants was in some respects different from that of the living species; for instance, the giraffe has been found fossil in France and the Sivalik hills, showing a warmer climate than now prevails in those regions; on the contrary, the reindeer has been found in S. Europe, indicating also a temporary diminution of heat, probably from the extension southward of the ice during the glacial period. There are many interesting coincidences of geographical distribution in geological and the

present times, bearing perhaps on the point of the origin of existing mammals, and in favor of the theory of their origin from the development of previously existing types, rather than from a distinct creative act after the entire destruction of the preceding fauna. Camels are found fossil in the Sivalik hills of Asia, llamas in the caverns of Brazil, musk deer in Asia and Africa, &c.; deer (cervida) are numerous in the diluvial formations of Europe, greatly resembling the present species, and, according to Pictet, some may be considered as the stock from which have been derived the present stag, reindeer, fallow deer, and roebuck, these, with also the goat and sheep, having survived the catastrophes of this disturbed period, and preceded the appearance of man in Europe. The fossil deer of Asia and America also very much resemble the existing species of these continents. The urus found by Julius Cæsar in Gaul, and the aurochs even now living in the forests of Lithuania, are interesting in connection with the origin of domestic cattle; these were probably indigenous, as a fossil urus and aurochs have been found in the diluvium of Europe. The fossil musk ox (ovibos) has been found in Siberia and North America, like the one now living in the polar regions. The ruminants show more transitions to other orders than would be supposed from the study of their living species, especially in the direction of the pachyderms; they appeared after the latter, and under forms very nearly resembling existing species; there were none in the eocene tertiary, when almost all herbivorous mammals were pachyderms, but appeared first in the miocene, and then became so numerous that in the subsequent epoch (pliocene) and during the diluvium they had entirely displaced the latter, at least in Europe. The siva therium of the Sivalik hills resembled pachyderms in its heavy form, short neck, and probable trunk (as indicated by the nasal bones). Among the gigantic animals of this order may be mentioned the great Irish elk, with enormous horns, found in the diluvium of Europe. The genus macrauchenia, as large as a rhinoceros, is peculiar to the southern regions of South America, and forms another remarkable transition form between ruminants and pachyderms. (See MACRAUCHENIA.)

RUMOHR, KARL FRIEDRICH LUDWIG FELIX VON, a German writer on art, born at Reinhardsgrimma, near Dresden, in 1785, died in Dresden, July 25, 1843. He studied at the university of Göttingen, but at the age of 15 placed himself under the tuition of the painter Fiorillo. In 1804 he visited Italy, and in 1811 published the first of a succession of works on art, critical and historical, which extended during his life to about 20 volumes. In 1815 he returned to Italy, and commenced at Florence the studies for his "Italian Researches" on the history of art, two volumes of which were published in 1827, and the third in 1831. He also wrote several miscellaneous works. VOL. XIV.-14

In

RUMSEY, JAMES, an American inventor, born at Bohemia Manor, Cecil co., Md., about 1743, died in England, Dec. 23, 1792. Sept. 1784, he exhibited on the Potomac in the presence of Gen. Washington, who certified to the fact in writing, a boat which worked against the stream by means of mechanism. He subsequently gave his attention to steam as a motive power, and in March, 1786, succeeded in propelling a boat on the Potomac by a steam engine and machinery of his own construction, which secured motion by the force of a stream of water thrown out by a pump at the stern. A successful experiment on a larger scale in Dec. 1787, was witnessed by a large concourse of people. About the same time he became involved in a controversy with John Fitch, who had been experimenting in steam navigation on the Delaware. (See FITCH, JOHN.) In 1788 the "Rumsey society," of which Benjamin Franklin was a member, was formed in Philadelphia to further the schemes of the inventor, who in the same year went to England, where he met with considerable encouragement. A society similar to that in Philadelphia was formed in London, a boat and machinery were built for him, and he obtained patents for his inventions in Great Britain, France, and Holland. A successful trip was made with his boat upon the Thames in Dec. 1792, and he was preparing for another experiment when his death occurred. In 1839, by a joint act of congress, a gold medal was presented to his son, James Rumsey, "commemorative of his father's services and high agency in giving to the world the benefit of the steamboat."

RUNEBERG, JOHAN LUDVIG, a Finnish poet, born in Jakobstad, Feb. 5, 1804. His family being poor, he was educated by subscription, was graduated at the university of Abo in 1827, in which in 1830 he became teacher of æsthetics, and in 1844 professor of Greek in the gymnasium at Abo. He writes in Swedish, and, without ever having been in Sweden, is the most popular living poet in that tongue. Poetical translations from his poems are given in William and Mary Howitt's "History of the Literature and Romance of Northern Europe."

RUNES (Gothic, runa, secret), ancient Scandinavian characters, forming an alphabet, according to general belief, of 16 letters. In Sweden ancient inscriptions on rock or stone monuments are found chiefly upon the shores of the lake Mælar, in the neighborhood of Upsal and Sigtuna; and here as everywhere they are written in Icelandic with runic characters. Saxo Grammaticus, who wrote in the 12th century, says that the early Danes engraved verses upon rock and stone monuments, in honor of their ancestors' heroism; but he gives no examples, and as many rune stones describe the deaths of Christians, it is probable that the zeal of the early Christians led them to destroy runic records of pagans. The runes were engraved not only on stone, but upon arms, cups, amulets, instruments of various kinds, and also

upon the bark of trees and upon wooden tablets. In a biography of St. Anscarius a letter in runic characters is quoted, in the 9th century, from a Swedish king to Louis le Débonnaire; and in the 6th century Venantius Fortunatus invites his friend to correspond with him in Hebrew, Persian, Greek, or runic. The oldest runic MS. now existing is in the library of the university of Copenhagen, a collection of laws written in the 13th or 14th century. Much older inscriptions however exist. In 1834 Finn Magnusson deciphered the celebrated Harold inscription, which the physicist Berzelius believed to be an accidental vein, on a rock in the south of Sweden. Saxo Grammaticus relates that Waldemar I., who reigned in the 12th century, had tried in vain to render it. It is an Icelandic prayer that victory should crown the arms of Harold against the Swedish king Sigurd, A. D. 735. Runic characters, according to the doctrine of Scandinavian mythology, possessed magical properties.

RUNJEET SINGH, a rajah or sovereign of the Sikhs, in the Punjaub, born at Gugazanwala, 60 m. W. of Lahore, Nov. 2, 1782, died there, June 27, 1839. He was the son of Maha Singh, sirdar or governor of one of the Sikh provinces, who died, leaving the government of his province to his son Runjeet, then 12 years of age, under the regency of his mother, whom the young sirdar is said to have poisoned when he arrived at the age of 17, in order that he might reign alone. His father had left him a full treasury and a position of influence over the neighboring sirdars, which he improved with such skill and success, that in the first years of his independent reign he had materially increased his territory and his power. A service which he rendered to the shah of the Afghans induced that monarch to grant him the title of king of Lahore, by which he was generally known to Europeans. He reduced several of the neighboring sirdars to become his tributaries, and took from the Afghans several important towns situated on the W. bank of the Indus. On April 25, 1809, he signed a treaty with the English at Loodiana, making the Sutlej substantially the boundary between his possessions and those of the East India company. He now reorganized his army by the aid of European officers, so that none of the native armies could stand against it; and in 1812 there were left but 3 independent sirdars in the Punjaub, and in 1819 he had become the master of these also, as well as of the city of Peshawer in Afghanistan, and assumed to himself the title of maharajah (king of kings). By the employment of two skilful European officers, Messrs. Allard and Ventura, in 1822, he succeeded in bringing his troops into a still higher degree of efficiency, and crossing the Indus took the province of Peshawer lying along its W. bank. His conquests in Afghanistan occupied him for several years. In 1838 he entered into negotiations with the British for a closer alliance, but died before they were concluded.

RUNNERS. See ORTHOPTERA.

RUNNYMEDE, RUNNIMEDE, or RUNNEMEDE, a narrow slip of meadow land on the bank of the Thames near Egham, in the N. W. part of the county of Surrey, England, memorable as the place where in 1215 King John was compelled by his barons to grant the privileges contained in Magna Charta. The Egham races now take place upon this meadow.

RUPERT, PRINCE (PRINCE ROBERT of Bavaria), a royalist general of horse during the English civil war, born in 1619, died at Spring Gardens, Nov. 29, 1682. His mother Elizabeth was the eldest daughter of James I. of England, and had been married to Frederic V., elector palatine, who on the outbreak of the 30 years' war made an unsuccessful attempt to establish himself on the throne of Bohemia, and in consequence was deprived of his estates. The son shared in the misfortunes of his father, and received little education; but in the wars for the recovery of the Palatinate he early gave evidence of headlong bravery. At the age of 23, at the beginning of the civil war, he offered his services to his uncle Charles I. of England, and by him was placed at the head of a regiment of horse. He had been recommended to the king by the queen Henrietta Maria as "a person that is capable of doing any thing that he is ordered, but he is not to be trusted to take a single step out of his own head." He took Hereford, Lichfield, and Cirencenster, and bore a prominent part in the battles of Worcester, Edgehill, and Chalgrove field, in which last engagement Hampden was killed. His daring and vigor had more than compensated for his want of prudence and military sagacity, and he was created by the king a knight of the garter and duke of Cumberland. He carried Bristol by assault on July 27, 1643, scattered the parliamentary forces at Newark, and subsequently gained distinction in the north of England, especially by the relief of Latham house, held by the countess of Derby against a detachment of Fairfax's army. All the glory from these brilliant enterprises was entirely obliterated by his ill success in the battle of Marston Moor, the fate of which was due to his own rashness and his want of concert with the duke of Newcastle. The king's confidence in his abilities, however, did not diminish, and he was promoted from the generalship of the horse to the command of all the forces, and while occupying this position took the city of Leicester. In the battle of Naseby, June 14, 1645, Prince Rupert commanded the left wing, and pursued the portion of the parliamentary army opposed to him a great distance, returning to find his own side defeated. Subsequently he took command of Bristol, the maintenance of which was essential to the success of the royal cause. The city was invested by Fairfax and Cromwell (Aug. 22), and was stormed on Sept. 10 and surrendered, the prince marching out with a convoy of 2 regiments of horse, and proceeding to Oxford. The same day a royal proc

lamation was issued revoking and annulling all military authority given to "our nephew Prince Rupert." The king and the prince subsequently had a stormy meeting, and the latter left the service; but in 1648 he obtained the command of that portion of the fleet which adhered to the royal cause, and with it went to the coast of Ireland to assist Lord Ormond. Anchoring in the harbor of Kinsale, he was there blockaded by Blake with the parliamentary fleet until Oct. 1649, when he succeeded in forcing his way out with the loss of a few ships. He then sailed for Lisbon, closely pursued by Blake, from Lisbon to Carthagena, and from Carthagena to Malaga, and there made a prize of some English merchantmen. Hereupon Blake, who had hitherto been prevented from undertaking decisive action either by the Portuguese or Spanish authorities, attacked Rupert's squadron, and destroyed all but a few ships with which the prince escaped and made his way to the West Indies. There he remained some time, supporting himself by the capture of Spanish and English merchantmen, and then returned to France, selling his ships to the French government in behalf of Charles II. After the restoration he again made his appearance at the English court, and was made privy councillor. Under the duke of York he held a command in the fleet, and was present at the naval battle of Lowestoffe. In 1666, in conjunction with Lord Albemarle, he held command of the fleet which acted against the Dutch with various success. In 1673 he was also intrusted with the command of the fleet in place of the duke of York, who had resigned; but as he found the squadron ill manned and ill equipped, he returned home without engaging the enemy. During the latter years of his life he was governor of Windsor castle, and spent a large portion of his time in painting and engraving, and in mechanical and chemical experiments. He is generally regarded as the inventor of the mezzotinto, although this may be doubted, and is also believed to have been the inventor of pinchbeck or prince's metal, and of the glass bubbles called "Rupert's drops." (See ANNEALING.) He was buried in Henry VII.'s chapel, Westminster.

RUPPELL, WILHELM PETER EDUARD SIMON, a German traveller, born in Frankfort-on-theMain, Nov. 10, 1794. He was destined by his father for a commercial career; but having travelled, on account of impaired health, through Italy, and thence to Egypt, on his return in 1818 he devoted himself to natural sciences, entered into connection with the Senkenberg scientific society of his native city, and in 1822-17 travelled in Nubia, Sennaar, Kordofan, Dongola, and Arabia. The Senkenberg society received the rich collections which were the fruits of his first journeys; others collected in a later journey through. Abyssinia, in 1831-4, with reference to history, antiquities, and geography, as well as natural sciences, he presented to the city library of Frankfort, receiving in compen

sation for his large travelling expenses a small annual pension from the city. His principal works are: Reise in Nubien, Kordofan und dem peträischen Arabien (Frankfort, 1829); Reise in Abessinien (2 vols., 1838-'40);· Neue Wirbelthiere zur Fauna von Abessinien (1835'40); and Uebersicht der Vögel Nord- und OstAfrikas (1845).

RUPTURE. See HERNIA.
RURIK. See RUSSIA.
RUSA. See DEER.

RUSCHENBERGER, WILLIAM S. W., M.D., an American naturalist and author, born in Cumberland co., N. J., Sept. 4, 1807. He was educated in New York and Philadelphia, studied medicine, became a surgeon in the United States navy, and between 1826 and 1834 made two voyages of about 3 years each in the Pacific. In March, 1835, he sailed as surgeon of the fleet for the East India squadron, and returned in Nov. 1837, after a voyage of circumnavigation. From 1843 to 1847 he had charge of the U. S. naval hospital at Brooklyn, N. Y., and during that period organized the naval laboratory for supplying the service with unadulterated drugs. In 1848 he went again to the East Indies, and returning in the following year was made a member of the board appointed to draw up plans and regulations for the U. S. naval academy. In Oct. 1854, he sailed as surgeon of the Pacific squadron. His chief works are: "Three Years in the Pacific" (8vo., Philadelphia, 1834); " A Voyage round the World, including an Embassy to Muscat and Siam" (8vo., 1838); “Elements of Natural History" (2 vols. 12mo., 1850), published also in separate manuals on anatomy and physiology, mammalogy, ornithology, herpetology and ichthyology, conchology, entomology, botany, and geology; "A Lexicon of Terms used in Natural History" (12mo., 1850); and "Notes and Commentaries during a Voyage to Brazil and China in the Year 1848" (8vo., Richmond, 1854).

RUSH (juncus, Linn.; Lat. jungo, to join or bind, the rush being used for tying), the name of several plants belonging to the natural order juncace. They are grass-like herbs with jointed stems, either leafless or bearing terete and laterally flattened, knotted leaves, and greenish or brownish flowers, consisting of regular, persistent perianths of 6 husk-like sepals, enclosing 3 to 6 stamens with introrsed anthers, a 1-styled, 1 to 3-celled ovary, forming a 3-valved, 3 or many-seeded pod. Structurally the flowers of the rushes are liliaceous, but in general aspect and texture grass-like. The common rush (J. effusus, Linn.) has a perennial root, a leafless, often sterile stem filled with a spongy pith, and flowers in panicles, much and diffusely branched, produced from the side of the stem (scape) above the middle. It is found throughout the United States in moist meadows and low grounds, and occupies and almost covers rice fields as soon as they are thrown out of cultivation. The bayonet rush (J. militaris,