product is about 1.2 kilogrammes of crude sodium, yielding 1.1 (2.424 lbs.) of purified bars. The sodium thus obtained costs, according to Payen (in 1859), 30 francs or $5.79 per kilogramme, instead of its former price of 1,000 francs. One of the principal elements of cost consists in the sheet iron cylinders, which must be renewed after two operations. Their durability may be increased by surrounding them with a lute of refractory clay, and heating them on the bed of a reverberatory furnace, which might be done whenever the consumption of aluminum requires the manufacture of sodium on a large scale. The principal use of sodium is in the manufacture of aluminum, and the other earthy metals are also produced by its aid.-Sodium forms two combinations with oxygen: 1, soda, NaO (see SODA), and 2, peroxide of sodium. The latter, which may be obtained by heating to redness soda or hydrate of soda in contact with air or oxygen, or by the ignition of nitrate of soda, is a dirty greenish yellow substance, less fusible than hydrate of soda, and a non-conductor of electricity. Its composition is still uncertain, as it has never been obtained unmixed with soda, but is probably NaOs. It is easily decomposed. A suboxide is also said to exist. Sodium forms several compounds with sulphur, but only one, the monosulphuret, NaS, is well defined and stable. Its solution, which is prepared by passing sulphuretted hydrogen through a strong solution of caustic soda, is colorless, and can be preserved for a long time without sensible alteration, rendering it very valuable as a chemical reagent. The higher sulphurets are obtained by heating carbonate of soda or the monosulphuret with an excess of sulphur; one is known as the soda liver of sulphur. A compound of sodium with phosphorus is produced by heating them together. It is a lead-colored substance, which burns when heated in the air, producing phosphate of soda. Sodium forms but one compound with chlorine, common salt, NaCl (see SALT); with iodine, bromine, and fluorine, several. With aluminum it forms two double salts of much interest. The first, the double chloride (NaCl, Al, Cla), has been used with advantage in the preparation of aluminum (see ALUMINUM), and is prepared by passing a current of chlorine over a mixture of 100 parts of alumina, 120 parts of common salt, and 40 parts of charcoal, made up in balls of the size of the fist, with a little water, dried, and heated in earthen cylinders about 4 feet high and 8 inches in diameter, provided with earthen tubes which convey the vapors of the double chloride into a recipient where they solidify. After remelting, to remove some impurities, the product is ready for use. The double fluoride, 3NaFl, Al. Fls, occurs in large quantities in Greenland. (See CRYOLITE.) SODOM, one of the southern border towns of the Canaanites (Gen. x. 19), which, with Gomorrah, Admah, and Zeboim (Deut. xxix. 23), was destroyed on account of the wickedness of the inhabitants. It was situated in or

near the fertile valley of Siddim (Gen. xiv. 8), and its site is now covered by the southern portion of the Dead sea. Lot, after separating from Abraham, settled in Sodom, which at that time had its own king. The crime against nature, on account of which, according to Genesis, the city was destroyed, has been called after it. The name has also been preserved in a plant called apple of Sodom, mentioned by Josephus, which by most modern writers (Robinson, Seetzen, &c.) is identified with a plant called by the Arabs osher.

SOFALA, a tract of country on the E. coast of Africa, comprehended within the territory known as Mozambique. It extends from about lat. 18° to 24' S., and from the seaboard to the Lupata mountains, having an extreme length of about 400 m. and a breadth of 200 m. Along the coast the land is low and sandy or swampy, but rises toward the interior till it terminates in the mountain range already mentioned. The country is watered by several considerable rivers, which annually overflow their banks; the most important are the Sofala, the Bocias, the Sabia, and the Inhamban There are mines of iron and copper, and gold, topazes, and rubies are found. The Portuguese possessions in Sofala occupy an area of about 10,000 sq. m., and have a population of 287,000. They comprise the districts of Quilimane, Sena, Tete, Chickowa, and Zumbo. The lieutenant-governor of these territories is under the governor of Mozambique, and resides at Sena.-SOFALA, a town in the above country, and formerly the capital of a native kingdom, is situated at the mouth of the river Sofala, in lat. 20° S., long. 35° E. It has a fort and a church, and consists of a few mud and straw huts, though once a place of considerable trade. The climate is very unhealthy. Some gold dust is exported, and some authors have supposed that it is the Ophir of the ancients. SOIL. See AGRICULTURE.

SOISSONS (anc. Noviodunum, and afterward Augusta Suessionum), a fortified town of France, in the department of Aisne, on the left bank of the river Aisne, 60 m. N. E. from Paris; pop. in 1856, 7,636. It has a cathedral built in the 12th and 13th centuries, the ruined abbey of St. Jean des Vignes, a castle, and a college. In the environs is the abbey of St. Médard, founded by Clothaire I. in 557, in which Louis le Débonnaire was confined by his sons, and now occupied as an institute for deaf mutes. There are manufactures of fine tapestry, linen, hosiery, cordage, earthenware, and leather.-Soissons was the chief place of the Suessiones in the time of Caesar, and in the 6th century the capital of Clovis, and gave name to the kingdom of his 4th son. It has sustained many sieges, the last by the allies in 1814. The council which condemned the doctrines of Abelard met here in 1122.

SOLAN GOOSE. See GANNET.

SOLANDER, DANIEL CHARLES, a Swedish naturalist, born in the province of Norrland,

Feb. 28, 1736, died in London in 1782. He was educated at Upsal under Linnæus. After receiving the degree of M.D. he made a tour in Russia, went to the Canary isles, where he spent some time in studying their natural history, and thence reached England in 1760, and was soon after employed in preparing a catalogue of the collections in the British museum, and subsequently as an assistant in the natural history department. In 1766 he published a catalogue of the Brander collection of fossils in the British museum. In 1768 he accompanied Sir Joseph Banks on Capt. Cook's first voyage round the world. In 1773 he was appointed under librarian to the British museum, which office he held until his death. He published several papers in the "Transactions" of the royal and other societies, and left a large number of manuscripts on scientific topics which are still preserved in the museum. SOLANO, a N. W. co. of California, bounded S. E. by Sacramento river and S. by Suisun bay; area, 906 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 7,170. The surface is broken, and contains several beautiful and fertile valleys. The W. part is mountainous. Mare island, on which is a U. S. navy yard, is within the county. The productions in 1858 were 165,160 bushels of wheat, 164,175 of barley, and 24,990 of oats. There are excellent mineral springs, and veins of coal and marble. Capital, Benicia. See ASTRONOMY. See DAY.

SOLAR SYSTEM. SOLAR TIME. SOLDER. See ALLOY, and BRAZING. SOLDIER. See ARMY, ARTILLERY, CAVALRY, and INFANTRY.

SOLE (solea, Cuv.), a genus of soft-rayed flat fishes of the family pleuronectidæ, the characters of which have been given under FLOUNDER. The genus is characterized by the jaws concealed under the scaly skin, the upper rounded and longest; the eyes are both on the right side, small, the lower behind the upper and almost at the angle of the mouth; the mouth is curved, and turned almost wholly to the left side, and the fine and villiform teeth are nearly all on this side; the snout is in advance of the mouth; the lateral line straight; branchial openings below the small pectorals; dorsal and anal very long, often confluent with the caudal; no air bladder, and no pancreatic cæca, and the intestine long and often doubled; the blind side is sometimes furnished with shred-like villi. The common sole (S. vulgaris, Cuv.) has the body more elongated than in most flat fishes, with a blunt and rounded muzzle; the length is from 10 to 20 inches, and the color uniform dark brown above and white below, the pectorals tipped with black. It inhabits the sandy shores of Great Britain, keeping near the bottom, feeding on the spawn and fry of other fishes and on shell fish; it is found from the seas of Scandinavia to the Mediterranean. It is one of the best and most delicate fishes for the table, and is caught in immense numbers by trawl nets; 86,000 bushels have been brought

to Billingsgate market alone in a year; it is one of the most important fisheries; the flesh is white and firm, and is in good condition all the year except in February and March, when they are spawning. Some are found reversed, or with the eyes and colored surface on the left side, and a few are dark and rough on both sides. The lemon or French sole (S. pegusa, Yarr.) is smaller, yellowish brown above spotted with darker brown, wider, and thicker. In the genus monochirus (Cuv.) there is no pectoral on the blind side, and the other is very small. Here belongs the variegated sole (M. linguatulus, Cuv.), reddish brown above, clouded both on the body and fins with darker; the scales large and harsh; it is about 10 inches long, and inhabits the seas of Europe. In achirus (Lac.) there are no pectorals; species are found in the Indian seas, with the upper parts marbled with brown and lighter. To this genus belongs the New York sole (A. mollis, Mitch.), 6 to 8 inches long, dark brown, marked transversely with irregular black bands, and scales small; it is found from Nantucket to Carolina.

SOLECISM (Gr. σodokioμos), an ungrammatical use of language. The word is derived from Soli, a city of Cilicia, whose inhabitants were famous at Athens for their incorrect and inelegant speech.

SOLEURE, or SOLOTHURN, a N. W. canton of Switzerland, composed of two unequal parts, and bounded by Basel Landschaft, Aargau, Bern, and France; area, 280 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 69,527, of whom 59,749 were Roman Catholics. The Jura mountains occupy a part of the canton, and the remainder of the surface is level and fertile. It is traversed by the river Aar, a tributary of the Rhine. Gold, silver, iron, and lignite are found. The soil is remarkably fertile, both on the lower grounds and mountain slopes. A great deal of the surface is occupied by meadows and pastures, upon which large numbers of cattle are kept. The forests are extensive, and contain much valuable timber. German is the language of the canton. The government was formerly aristocratic, but democratic principles have been largely introduced into it, especially by the revision of the constitution in 1841. The capital, Soleure, is situated at the foot of the Weissenstein, on the Aar; pop. 6,000.

SOLFAING. See SOLMIZATION.

SOLFERINO, a village of Italy in E. Lombardy, near Castiglione. It has a ruined castle, formerly the seat of a prince of Solferino; but it is principally remarkable for the great battle fought here between the allied French and Sardinian forces and the Austrians on June 24, 1859. This battle lasted 16 hours, and 4 French corps d'armée under Marshals Baraguay d'Hil liers, MacMahon, Canrobert, and Niel, and led by the emperor Napoleon III., and 4 divisions of the Sardinian army, commanded by Victor Emanuel in person, were opposed to an immense Austrian force, under the command of the emperor Francis Joseph. The points at

which the struggle was most severe were the heights of the village of Solferino, which were captured after a long and terrible fight by the first corps under Marshal Baraguay d'Hilliers; the height of Medole, from which Gen. Niel with the 4th corps drove the Austrians, though at a heavy loss, to the villages of Rebecco and Guiddezolo; the village of Capriana, which was the scene of a desperate strife; and the vicinity of Rivoltella, where Victor Emanuel and the Sardinians contended long and successfully with the enemy. The battle was finally gained by the allies in consequence of the greater range of their artillery and rifles, and the desperate and reckless bravery of the Zouave corps. The French army had 12,000 men killed and wounded, 150 officers killed, and 720 hors du combat; the Sardinians 5,000 killed, wounded, and missing. The Austrians lost many more in killed and wounded than the allies, and beside left in their hands 4 standards, 30 cannon, and 6,000 prisoners.

SOLGER, KARL WILHELM FERDINAND, a German writer on æsthetics, born in Schwedt, Brandenburg, Nov. 28, 1780, died in Berlin, Oct. 20, 1819. He studied the classics at Berlin and the law at Halle, interesting himself also in æsthetic and philosophical inquiries, attended the lectures of Schelling at Jena in 1801, received a civil appointment in 1803 in Berlin, where he heard the lectures of Fichte, and in 1806 retired to Schwedt, and completed there his translation of Sophocles (2 vols., Berlin, 1808; 2d ed., 1824). He became professor at Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1809, and at Berlin in 1811. He published Erwin: vier Gespräche über das Schöne und die Kunst (2 vols., Berlin, 1815), and Philosophische Gespräche (Berlin, 1817). After his death, his Nachgelassene Schriften und Briefwechsel were edited by Tieck and Von Raumer (2 vols., Leipsic, 1826), and his Vorlesungen über die Aesthetik by Heyse (Berlin, 1829).

SOLIMAN. See SOLYMAN.

SOLIPEDA, a term employed by Cuvier and other naturalists for the pachyderms which have only one apparent toe and a single hoof on each foot, like the horse, ass, and zebra. Solidungula is an equivalent term used by Owen and others.

SOLIS, ANTONIO DE, a Spanish historian and poet, born in Alcala de Henares, July 18, 1610, died in Madrid, April 19, 1686. He studied the civil and canon law at the university of Salamanca, and wrote his first play while there. In 1642 he was appointed to a lucrative office under the secretary of state, and after the death of Philip IV. was created first historiographer of the transactions of the Spaniards in both Indies. He entered holy orders in 1667, and died in extreme poverty. Out of Spain Solis is best known by his Historia de la conquista de Mexico (fol., Madrid, 1684). His principal plays are El alcazar del secreto, La Gitanilla de Madrid (which is reproduced in Rowley and Middleton's "Spanish Gypsy" and Victor Hugo's

Notre Dame de Paris), and Un bobo hace ciento. His plays, 14 in number, were published collectively at Madrid in 1732.

SOLITAIRE, a wingless bird of the dodo family, the didus solitarius (Gmel.) or the pezophaps solitaria (Strickland), a native of the little island of Rodriguez, a few miles E. of Mauritius; like the rest of its family, if not now existing, it has become extinct within a few centuries. According to the French voyager Leguat, the male was brownish gray, a little larger than a turkey, which it resembled in its feet, but the beak was more hooked, and the neck longer and straighter; the tail very short, and the posterior part of the body rounded; the eyes black and lively, the head without comb or crest, and the feathers of the lower parts imbricated; the weight about 45 lbs.; the female smaller and lighter colored. It received its name from its being generally seen alone, though it was not uncommon on the island; the wings were too short for flight, but were moved rapidly while running, and the hard knob at the end was used as a principal means of defence; hence, though unable to fly, the sternum was provided with a strong keel for the attachment of muscles; it did not run rapidly, and was not very shy. It was monogamous, making a nest on the ground of the leaves of the palm, laying one egg, larger than that of a goose; the young required to be fed in the nest. The flesh was said to be fat and good eating, and the food to be the fruit of the date palm. Though belonging to the dodo family, it had a longer neck and head, a shorter beak, and more developed wings; the toes were 3 in front and 1 behind, and the bill was 2 inches long and of a red color. Another allied bird in the island of Bourbon, called also solitaire, was whitish or light yellow, with the tips of the wings and tail black; it was as large as a goose. The bones found contain almost all their animal matter. It is considered by Messrs. Strickland and Melville, in their work on "The Dodo and its Kindred” (4to., London, 1848), as a terrestrial modification of the treronina, but having no immediate affinity with other ground pigeons. See also "Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London” for 1851, pp. 280–284.

SOLMIZATION, in singing, the art of applying to the 7 notes of the musical scale certain syllables, designated do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si, by the use of which the singer is enabled to utter the sound with more fulness and freedom, and to remember more exactly the places of the tones and semi-tones. The art was practised by the Greeks, but the syllables in general use at present, with the exception of the first, altered from ut to do on account of the euphony, and of the last, which was added by the French, were introduced by Guido Aretino. The oetave is completed by the repetition of the first syllable, do; and in singing, all the syllables retain their Italian pronunciation.

SOLOMON. See HEBREWS, vol. ix. p. 32.

SOLOMON, SONG OF.

See CANTICLES. See WISDOM OF SOLOMON BEN ISAAC, rabbi, erroneously surnamed YARHI, and generally known under the abbreviation RASHI (the initials of the Hebrew Rabbi Shelomoh Yitzhaki), a Jewish commentator of the Bible and Talmud, born in Troyes, France, about 1040, died there, July 13, 1105. His comments on both the Hebrew Scriptures and the Talmud have till this day served as the principal manual, in Hebrew, of the youthful student, as well as of the scholar. Those on the Bible have been translated into Latin by Breithaupt (3 vols., Gotha, 1710-'14). A critical essay on Rashi has been written in German by Dr. Zunz (in the Zeitschrift für die Wissenschaft des Judenthums, 1822), and translated into Hebrew by Samson Bloch.

SOLOMON, WISDOM OF. SOLOMON.

SOLOMON ISLANDS, a group of the S. Pacific lying to the S. E. of New Britain and E. of New Guinea, extending in a S. E. direction from lat. 4° 50' to 11° 50' S., and from long. 154° 30' to 162° 30' E. The group is composed of 9 principal and several smaller islands, the area of the whole being estimated at 10,000 sq. m. The largest of the islands is about 130 m. long and 20 broad; but they have never been surveyed. Mountains, often of considerable height, traverse them. The shores are generally low, and in some places bordered with mangrove swamps. They are watered by numerous streams, and the temperature cooled by copious rains. They are inhabited by two races, the negrillo, black with woolly hair, and the Malay, copper-colored with straight or curly hair and much better looking. The population is very irregularly distributed, the N. islands being more populous than the others. They were discovered by the Spanish navigator Mendana in 1567, and rediscovered by Carteret in 1767.

SOLOMON'S SEAL (polygonatum, Tournefort), a genus of herbaceous perennial plants, with jointed tuberous roots, belonging to the lily family. The common Solomon's seal (P. vulgare) has creeping, fleshy, strong-scented, and knobby or jointed rhizomes, and its trivial name is derived from certain marks perceptible on the transverse sections of these joints, resembling cabalistic characters. This species is a native of Europe, and is cultivated in gardens, its alternate, clasping, broadly elliptical, acute, ribbed leaves, greenish white, axillary, pendulous flowers, and spherical dark blue berries rendering it attractive. A variety with double flowers is known. There are several North American species. The greater Solomon's seal (P. giganteum, Dietrich), supposed by some to be identical with the common kind, has a tall, stout, terete stem, ovate, partly clasping, many-nerved leaves, and axillary flowers with 2 to 8 peduncles; it occurs in alluvial soils. The 2-flowered Solomon's seal (P. biflorum, Ell.) is more common on wooded banks; its stem is slender, 1 to 3 feet high; its

leaves ovate oblong or lance-oblong, nearly sessile, and pubescent; its peduncles mostly 2-flowered. All the species grow readily.

SOLON, the Athenian lawgiver, born about 638 B. C., died in Athens about 559. He was of the purest heroic blood, his father being a descendant of Codrus, and his mother a cousin of the mother of Pisistratus. In his youth he visited many parts of Greece and Asia as a merchant, gained distinction by his poems while there was as yet no Greek prose, and from his reputation for political wisdom was reckoned, in all the lists, one of the seven sages. After returning to Athens, he began his political career by recovering Salamis from the Megarians. The Athenians had repeatedly failed in their attempts upon this island, and had prohibited any citizen on pain of death from proposing a renewal of the enterprise. Solon counterfeited madness, and in apparent frenzy read in the agora a short poem, the effect of which was that the law was rescinded, war declared, and he himself appointed to the command of it. In a single campaign (about 600 B. C.) the Megarians were expelled from the island, but a tedious conflict ensued, which was finally settled in favor of Athens by the arbitration of Sparta. Soon after, in the Amphictyonic council, he moved the decree by which the Athenians espoused the cause of the Delphian oracle against Cirrha. In 594 B. C., when his fame for wisdom and integrity was spread throughout Greece, when he derived a double influence from his connection by birth with the aristocrats and by occupation with the commercial classes, and when civil dissensions and the miserable condition of the poorer classes had made society in Athens intolerable, he was called by all parties to the archonship, with powers substantially dictatorial, and chiefly with authority to confirm, repeal, or modify the Draconian laws. It is undoubted that he might have made himself despot, and that his friends were disappointed at his refusal to do so. The constitution of Solon (see ATHENS, vol. ii. p. 269), which made property instead of birth the title of citizenship, and which was the prelude to the subsequent democracy, was proclaimed and accepted without discussion or resistance, and by a solemn oath of the government and people was declared valid without alteration for 10 years. He obtained leave of absence for that period; visited Egypt, and conversed on matters of an unknown antiquity with the priests Psenophis of Heliopolis and Sonchis of Sais; and went thence to Cyprus, where he persuaded the prince of to change the site of the town, and himself made the regulations for the prosperity of the new establishment, which in his honor was called Soli. The story, related by Herodotus, of an interview between him and Croesus at Sardis, seems irreconcilable with chronology. He returned to Athens prior to the first usurpation of Pisistratus (560 B. C.), and amid violent dissensions was respected by all parties,

pea

but was unable to overrule the popular favor of his kinsman. He attempted in vain to rouse the citizens against the usurper, from whom, however, he did not withhold his advice when opposition had proved futile.-The chief sources for the biography of Solon are the compilations of Plutarch and Diogenes Laërtius. The extant fragments of his poems are usually contained in the collections of the Greek gnomic poets, and there is a separate edition by Bach (Leyden, 1825).

SOLSTICE (Lat. sol, the sun, and sto, to stand), the period in the annual revolution of the earth round the sun, when he is at that point in the ecliptic furthest north or south from the equator, or in other words reaches his greatest northern or southern declination. There are two solstices in the year: the summer solstice, June 22, when the sun seems to traverse the tropic of Cancer; and the winter solstice, Dec. 22, when he reaches his greatest southern declination, and appears to traverse the tropic of Capricorn. For several days before and after the solstice there is but a slight variation in the sun's apparent declination, and he is said to stand still. The solstitial points are the two points of the ecliptic at which the sun's greatest elevation above or depression below the equator terminates, and a circle supposed to pass through these points and the poles of the earth is called the solstitial colure.

SOLTIKOFF, the name of a Russian family, prominent since the 16th century. I. PRASKOVYA FEDOROVNA (died in 1696) became wife of the czar Ivan Alexeievitch, and mother of the empress Anna. II. SEMEN, governor of Moscow, was in 1732 raised by his aunt, the empress Anna, to the dignity of count in the Russian nobility. III. PETER SEMENOVITCH, count, son of the preceding, received in 1759 the chief command of the Russian army in the 7 years' war, gained in conjunction with the Austrian general Loudon the decisive victory of Kunersdorf (Aug. 12, 1759) over Frederic the Great, was afterward governor-general of Moscow, and died in 1772. IV. NICOLAI IVANOVITCH, of another branch of the family, a Russian statesman, born Oct. 24, 1736, died in St. Petersburg, May 28, 1816. He was tutor to Alexander, who was afterward emperor, became field marshal in 1796, and president of the imperial council in 1812; and during the absence of Alexander in 1813-'15 he held the authority of regent of the empire. In 1814 he was raised to the rank of prince. V. SERGEI, prince, grandson of the preceding, travelled in Persia in 1838 and in the East Indies from 1841 to 1846, and has published narratives in the French and Russian languages: Voyages dans l'Inde (Paris, 1849), and Voyage en Perse (Paris, 1851).

SOLUBLE GLASS. See SILICATES, SOLUBLE. SOLWAY FRITH, an arm of the Irish sea, which extends in a N. E. direction, between England and Scotland, about 41 m., with a breadth varying from 20 m.. between St. Bees Head in Cumberland and Rayberry Head in

Kirkcudbrightshire, to 2 m. It receives upon the English side the rivers Derwent, Ellen, Waver, Wampool, and Eden; and upon the Scottish side, the Urr, Nith, and Annan. Whitehaven, Maryport, and Allonby are situated on the English side, and Annan and Kirkcudbright on the Scottish. At ebb tide a large portion of the frith is left dry; and its water is always much discolored by the sand and earth carried into it by the streams. There are several valuable salmon fisheries upon the rivers which flow into it.

SOLYMAN II., called the MAGNIFICENT, the 10th Ottoman sultan, born in 1494, died Aug. 30, 1566. He was the son of Selim I., whom he succeeded in 1520. Differently educated from Ottoman princes in general, he had received instruction upon politics and government, and began his reign with the reformation of abuses. In 1521 he subdued the rebellion of Gozeli Bey in Syria, and in Hungary took Belgrade, Szalánkemén, and Peterwardein. After an arduous siege he took Rhodes from the knights of St. John in 1522. He invaded Hungary a second time in 1526, won the decisive battle of Mohács, in which the king of Hungary, Louis II., was slain, overran a part of the kingdom, and recognized as king John Zápolya, who put himself under Solyman's protection. This act embroiled the sultan with the rival king, Ferdinand I. of Hapsburg, and began the first of the Turkish wars against Germany. In 1529 Solyman took Buda, and appeared be fore Vienna with an army 120,000 strong; but after 20 assaults he retired with a loss of 80,000 men. A second attempt in 1532 was not more successful. In 1534 he invaded Persia, and subdued Armenia and Irak, with the cities of Tabriz and Bagdad; in 1536 formed an alliance with Francis I. of France against Charles V., the brother of Ferdinand; in the same year created the Barbary corsair Khair-ed-Deen or Barbarossa a Turkish admiral, and thus swept the Mediterranean and the Italian coasts; conquered Croatia in 1537 by a great victory over the imperialists at Eszek; and in 1538 made the conquest of Yemen. Upon the death of John Zápolya in 1540, he supported his son Sigismund Zápolya, and continued the war with Ferdinand until 1547, when a truce was agreed upon under which that prince paid tribute for his remaining Hungarian possessions. In 1553 he again invaded Persia, in 1548 gained a great battle at Van in Armenia, and in 1549-'50 conquered the provinces of Shirvan and Georgia Hostilities in Hungary were renewed in 1552 Transylvania was made a Turkish principality, and his fleets under Piali, the successor of Khair-ed-Deen, gained a great victory over the combined fleets of the emperor at Jerba on the African coast. A truce made in 1562 left the Turks in possession of their Hungarian conquests. In an attempt upon Malta in 1565, the whole naval force of Solyman was repulsed. In 1566 he again led a vast army to the invasion of Hungary, crossed the Drave, and laid