94. The following words, amongst many others,

are capable of forming, by themselves, predicates.

The words in the third column should especially be ob

served. They all end in -ing, -en, or -ed.

that

Besides these, all the words mentioned in § 93, is, all that could by themselves form subjects, can also by themselves form predicates. The contrary, how

ever, does not take place; that is, the words in § 94 that can by themselves form predicates, cannot also by themselves form subjects.

95. We have now seen that there are at least three sorts, or classes, of words: (1.) those that, by themselves, form either subjects or predicates; (2.) those that, by themselves, form predicates only; (3.) those that, by themselves, form copulas. To these must be added a fourth class, consisting of words like not, that convert an affirmative copula into a negative one.

96. The form of proposition that is at once the simplest and the most regular is that where the number of words and the number of parts coincide; that is, where an affirmative proposition consists of three words (neither more nor less), and a negative one of four. In this case each part consists of a single word; e. g. the subject of one (man), the predicate of one (mortal), the affirmative copula of one (is), the negative copula of two (is not) =man is mortal, man is not mortal.

It is not, however, the usage of language for propositions to take always the simple and regular form exhibited above. Languages may be so constructed as to admit of two of the parts of a proposition being included in a single word; and, in reality, most languages are so constructed.

97. The copula and predicate may be expressed by a single word. To say men die, or fires burn, is to make an assertion concerning men and fires. This assertion is that they are dying, or that they are not dying; that they are burning, or that they are not burn

ing. Instead, however, of saying are dying, or are burning, we say die and burn. The predicate in full would be burning, and the copula in full would be are (or is). Whether, however, man dies, or whether fire burns, is expressed as well by the words man dies, and fire burns, as by the fuller forms, man is dying, fire is burning.

98. We have now seen that there is a fifth class of words, namely, those that, by themselves, form a copula and predicate at once. The words in this class may be said to be of a mixed nature, since they can be resolved into the copulas and predicates to which they are equivalent.

99. The following words, amongst others, are capable of forming, by themselves, both a predicate and a copula at once.

A

Compare the words in the third column with those in the third column of § 94.

100. Inasmuch as the copula connects the subject and predicate, it comes between them; man is mortal. Hence the copula forms the middle part of a proposition. Consequently the subject and the predicate form the two limits, boundaries, or extremities of a proposition. Now the Latin word for a limit, boundary, or extremity is terminus. Hence the subject and predicate of a proposition are called, in logical and grammatical language, the terms of a proposition. The subject is one term, the predicate another.

101. In logic the subject stands at the beginning, the predicate at the end of a proposition. Thus we say, Diana is great; where Diana is the subject, great the predicate.

We may, however, also say, great is Diana; in which case the predicate begins, whilst the subject ends the proposition.

This shows that the order of the parts of a proposition is not always the same in language as it is in logic.

$ 102. The following list of words indicates a fresh point in the structure of terms: wisely, brightly, justly, quickly, slowly, badly, once, twice, thrice, now, then, already, to-morrow, oft, of, to, for, by, with, from, in, into, over, under, through, at, near, on, about, &c. Not one of these words can form a term by itself; that is, not one of them can be either subject, predicate, or copula, so long as it stands alone. We may verify this by constructing such combinations as wisely is good, from is black, man is wisely, &c. It is only when taken along with other words that the words above can

find place in a proposition. We can say, the sun is shining brightly, the sun in the sky is shining; since, in these cases, the words brightly and in are subordinate to the words shining and sky respectively.

103. All words that, by themselves, form either subjects or predicates, are called Nouns. $ 93, 94.

104. Nouns are of two sorts, Substantives and Adjectives. The words under 93 are Substantives. Of these words each is the name of some object which we can either see, hear, taste, smell, feel, or think about. Some of them we can perceive with our outward senses, such as our eyes or ears (e. g. man, fowl, bird, paper). Others we can perceive by the understanding (as length, wealth, goodness). This is the reason why we are enabled to make them the subjects of propositions.

105. A noun that, by itself, forms either the subject or the predicate of a proposition, and is also the name of an object, is called a Noun Substantive, or simply a Substantive.

106. The words under 94 are Adjectives. Of these words each is the name expressive of some quality belonging to some object (e. g. bad, good, black, white). We can say that certain objects are, or are not, endowed with certain qualities; e. g. we can say that man (the name expressing an object) is mortal (the name expressing a quality), or endowed with the quality of mortality. Concerning such and such objects (or subjects) we may assert such and such qualities. This is the reason why words like those in § 94 can form by themselves the predicates of propositions.

A noun that by itself forms the predicate of a prop