1

Cauten or Imperial, Tolten, Valdivia, Chaivin, Trumag, and Sinfondo. The soil is exceeding ly fertile, but the greater part of the surface is covered with forests of excellent timber. The climate is moist, but remarkably healthy. Valdivia at one time yielded large quantities of gold, but the system of slavery which the Spaniards attempted to impose upon the natives caused a general revolt, which eventually led to the utter ruin of the mines. About of the population are probably Araucanian Indians, and the remainder descendants of the Spaniards and mixed breeds.-VALDIVIA, the capital, is situated upon a sloping bank on the S. side of the river of the same name, about 9 m. from the Pacific, in lat. 39° 49' S., long. 73° 15' W.; pop. about 2,500, about 1,000 of whom are Germans. The harbor is a beautiful bay formed by the river, and is said by some to be one of the best in many respects on the E. side of the Pacific. The island of Manzera at the entrance to the river forms two passages, skirted by steep mountains strongly fortified. This part of the coast of Chili has been gradually rising from the ocean, and in 1820 Dr. Wayman found only 2 feet of water where 70 years before 6 Dutch line-of-battle ships had anchored. Valdivia is principally built of wood. Its chief trade is with Valparaiso, to which it exports large quantities of timber. It was founded in 1551 by Pedro de Valdivia, who obtained much gold from its vicinity. It became a rich and populous city, and was many times attacked and in 1590 destroyed by the Araucanians; after which it was rebuilt, and so strongly fortified as to resist all their attempts. It was taken by the Dutch in 1640, and by the patriots under Lord Cochrane in 1820.

VALÉE, SYLVAIN CHARLES, Count, a French general, born at Brienne-le-Château, department of Aube, Dec. 17, 1773, died in Paris, Aug. 16, 1846. He was a pupil of the military school of Brienne, and, having attained the rank of lieutenant of artillery in 1792, was favorably noticed by Moreau in several engagements. In 1802 he was promoted to the rank of major. Af ter serving with distinction at Eylau and Friedland, he was sent to Spain, appointed brigadiergeneral, promoted to the rank of general of division (1811) after the taking of Tarragona, and in 1814, as a reward for his brilliant services in the peninsula, created a count of the empire. Under the second restoration he was appointed an inspector of artillery (1822), and completely reorganized that arm of the service. In 1830 he was created a peer, but on the revolution of July in that year he retired to private life. Returning to active service in 1837, he gained several important victories in Algeria, and was made governor-general of that colony and marshal of France. In 1840 he was replaced by Gen. Bugeaud and returned home. VALENCIA, an E. co. of New Mexico, bordering on Texas, bounded N. E. by the Gooal-pah or Canadian river and W. by the Rio Grande, and traversed by the Rio Pecos; pop.

in 1860, 11,321. The soil is well adapted to grain and the grape. The surface is broken by ridges belonging to the Rocky mountain system. The productions in 1850 were 157,795 bushels of Indian corn, 42,983 of wheat, 8,115 of peas and beans, and 1,973 galls. of wine. There were 7 churches. Capital, Valencia.

VALENCIA, an ancient kingdom of Spain, bounded N. by Catalonia, E. and S. E. by the Mediterranean, S. W. by Murcia, W. by New Castile, and N. W. by Aragon; area, 8,813 sq. m.; pop. in 1857, 1,246,485. It comprised the modern provinces of Castellon, Valencia, and Alicante, with capitals of the same names. All the principal rivers rise in the country W. of Valencia; the most important are the Guadalaviar, the Jucar and its tributary the Magro, the Alcoy, Palancia, Mijares, Monleon, and Segura. The W. and interior parts of the country are mountainous, while the land upon the coast and on the banks of the numerous rivers is level, but these tracts are nowhere very large. In some places the mountains come close to the sea, and they are generally high and rugged. The Sierra de Penaquila, which terminates in Cape San Martin, traverses the province of Alicante in a N. E. direction. The other ranges are very irregular, but for the most part lie nearly E. and W. The ores of iron, copper, cobalt, quicksilver, lead, and silver are found. The facilities for irrigation afforded by the numerous rivers render Valencia the most fertile district of Spain, and in some places 3 or 4 crops are raised in a year. Wine is produced in large quantities, and is exported together with figs and raisins. Linen, silk, wool, cordage, matting, glass, paper, and earthenware are manufactured.-Under the Moors Valencia formed part of the kingdom of Cordova, but both province and city were taken from them in 1094. The Moors reconquered it in 1101 and erected it into an independent kingdom, but were finally expelled in 1238. It afterward became a province of the kingdom of Aragon, retaining however the title of Reino de Valencia till its division in 1833.-The modern province of VALENCIA occupies the centre of the ancient kingdom, between Castellon on the N. and Alicante on the S., and bounded W. by Albacete and Cuenca, and E. by the Mediterranean; area, 3,672 sq. m.; pop. in 1857, 606,608. The rivers Guadalaviar and Jucar, flowing into the Mediterranean, intersect it; and the surface is finely diversified by mountains, valleys, and plains. The mountainous districts are clothed with forests of fine timber, and there are valuable marble quarries in the interior and fisheries on the coast. Large numbers of sheep and goats are raised, and heavy crops of rice grow on the lower grounds; but the province is particularly noted for its oil, wine, silk, and fine fruit of many varieties.

VALENCIA, the capital of the province and of the ancient kingdom, is situated on the river Guadalaviar, about 4 m. from the sea, in lat. 39° 29′ N., long. 0° 24′ W., 190 m. E. S. E.

from Madrid; pop. in 1857, 145,512. It is of a circular form, surrounded by a wall built in 1356, 30 feet high and 10 feet thick, with a road on the summit. The city is entered by 8 gates, some of which have a very picturesque appearance. The river is crossed by 5 bridges, and the suburbs outside the walls are very extensive. The streets, with a few modern exceptions, are crooked and narrow, and the houses are high and have a very gloomy appearance. There is a quay or promenade along the side of the river planted with shade trees. The cathedral was commenced in 1262 and enlarged in 1482; it is a mixture of the Grecian and Gothic styles, and the interior is richly adorned with marble and gilding, and contains many fine pictures. There are 14 other churches, several suppressed convents, 21 nunneries, a Magdalen asylum, 22 hermitages, a college for orphans, an academy of the fine arts, a school of commerce, a college for advocates, and a medical institute. A library containing 11,000 volumes is attached to the episcopal palace. The principal manufactures are silks, linen and woollen goods, hats, leather, glass, paper, artificial flowers, iron ware, and pottery; the exports, different sorts of grain, saffron, and fruit; and the imports, iron, timber, and tropical produce.-Valencia was built by D. Junius Brutus in the latter half of the 2d century B. C., and destroyed by Pompey. The Moors took it from the Goths in 712, and it was captured from them in 1095, after a siege of 20 months. In 1101 they retook it, but were forced to surrender it in 1228 or 1239. In the war of the succession Valencia was strongly opposed to the French, in consequence of which it suffered severely in the reign of Philip V. In 1808 the French attempted to take it; but though it was abandoned by the generals and nobles, the people under Rico, a monk, made a gallant defence, and compelled the enemy to retire with great loss. It was afterward (Jan. 9, 1812) surrendered to Suchet by the Spanish general Blake.

VALENCIA, a city of Venezuela, capital of the province of Carabobo, situated in lat. 10° 10' N., long. 68° W., 20 m. from Puerto Cabello in the gulf of Triste, and 80 m. W. S. W. from Caracas; pop. about 16,000. It is connected with Puerto Cabello by a good road. The streets are broad and well laid out, and some of the houses regularly built, but the greater part are low and have a poor appearance. The principal church stands in a handsome square, and the market place is of great extent. The surrounding country produces fruits and provisions in great abundance, and large numbers of cattle are fed in the neighborhood. The city suffered from an earthquake in 1812, and subsequently from the protracted war of independence.

VALENCIENNES (anc. Valentiana), a fortified town of France, department of Nord, at the confluence of the Scheldt and Ronelle, 27 m. S. E. from Lille, in lat. 50° 21' N., long. 3° 31' E.; pop. in 1856, 20,905. It is a mili

tary post of the first class, and has a citadel, built by Vauban, on an island in the Scheldt. The chief manufactures are the lace to which the town gives its name, linen, muslins, beet sugar, gold and silver tissues, toys, earthenware, and leather. A statue to Froissart, who was a native of this town, was erected on the Place St. Géry in 1851.-Valenciennes was a residence of the Merovingian kings, became the capital of Hainaut, and was unsuccessfully besieged by Margaret of Hainaut (1254), Louis XI. (1477), and Turenne (1656), but was captured by Louis XIV. in 1677, and its possession was confirmed to France by the treaty of Nimeguen the next year. It was taken by the British and Austrians in 1793 after a siege of 6 weeks, but recaptured by Schérer in Aug. 1794. The allies occupied it from 1815 to 1818.

VALENS, FABIUS, a Roman general, born in Anagnia in Latium, beheaded in Urbinum in Sept. A. D. 69. He was of an equestrian family, and was made by Nero legate of the first legion of Germany, where he succeeded in inducing Vitellius to assume the imperial purple and to take up arms against Galba. Together with Cæcina he was intrusted with the conduct of the war, and with a separate army of 40,000 men he began his march through Gaul into Italy in Jan. 69. At Divodurum (Metz) his soldiers in a false alarm massacred 4,000 of the inhabitants. The authority of Vitellius was recognized throughout Gaul, and Valens continued his progress without opposition into Italy, using his vast power to gratify his avarice and lust. At Ticinum there was an insurrection of his soldiers, in which he nearly lost his life. In conjunction with Cacina he gained the battle of Bedriacum over Otho, who had succeeded Galba, and thus secured the Roman empire for Vitellius; and the latter, entering Rome, raised the two generals, who were exceedingly jealous of each other, to the consulship. Valens being sick on the approach of Antonius Primus, the general of Vespasian, Cæcina marched against him alone, and betrayed the army to the enemy. Valens then set sail for Gaul to raise succors for Vitellius, but on his way was taken prisoner, and, after having been kept a short time in confinement, was slain. Tacitus represents him as exceeding profligate, cruel, avaricious, and venal; and his remaining faithful to Vitellius is almost the only thing mentioned in history to his credit.

VALENS, FLAVIUS, a Roman emperor of the East, born about A. D. 328, killed at Adrianople, Aug. 9, 378. He was one of the domestici under the emperor Julian, and in March, 364, was made emperor of the East by his brother Valentinian I. While in Asia Minor in 365 he received news of the usurpation of the throne by Procopius, who was proclaimed emperor at Constantinople in December. Procopius advanced into Asia, defeated Valens under the walls of Chalcedon, and made himself master of Bithynia. In 366, however, the usurper was defeated in two battles, taken

prisoner, and put to death. In 367 Valens began a war with the Goths, who had assisted Procopius, and before setting out was baptized by Eudoxus, the Arian bishop of Constantinople. He was at first successful, and in 369 compelled Athanaric, the king of the Goths, to sue for peace. After returning in triumph to Constantinople, he was engaged in a desultory war with the Persians, in which however he confined himself chiefly to the defence of Armenia. In the mean while the Goths, retiring before an invasion of the Huns, were permitted to cross the Danube and settle in the Roman territories. The imperial authorities soon came into collision with them, and Valens returned from Asia to put a stop to their encroachments. A battle was fought near Adrianople, in which the Romans suffered one of the most terrible defeats they ever experienced, and their monarch, never having been seen afterward, was supposed to have been killed. Valens was a weak and cruel prince, and his reign was marked by fierce conflicts between the Arian and Catholic parties.

VALENTIN, GABRIEL GUSTAV, a German physiologist of Jewish descent, born in Breslau, July 8, 1808. He was educated at Breslau, practised medicine there for some years, and in 1845 was invited to a professorship of physiology in the university of Bern. His principal works are: Handbuch der Entwickelungsgeschichte (Berlin, 1835); De Functionibus Nertorum Cerebralium et Nervi Sympathici (Bern, 1839); Lehrbuch der Physiologie des Menschen 2 vols., Brunswick, 1845); and Grundriss der Physiologie des Menschen (Brunswick, 1846; enlarged ed., 1855). He has also contributed largely to scientific periodicals.

VALENTINE, SAINT, according to some ecclesiastical writers a bishop, according to others a presbyter, who was beheaded at Rome in the reign of the emperor Claudius (A. D. 270), and was early canonized. Wheatley says that St. Valentine" was a man of most admirable parts, and so famous for his love and charity, that the custom of choosing Valentines upon his festival (which is still practised) took its rise from thence." Others derived the custom from birds being supposed to select their mates on this day; others again from a practice prevalent in ancient Rome at the festival of the Lupercalia, held during the month of February, when, among other ceremonies, the names of young women were placed in a box, from which they were taken by young men, according as chance directed. The pastors of the early church, finding it impossible to extirpate this pagan ceremony, changed its form. As once practised, it was the custom on the eve of Feb. 14, St. Valentine's day, to have the names of a select number of one sex put into some vessel by an equal number of the other; and thereupon every one drew a name, which for the time being was called his or her Valentine. The custom of choosing Valentines existed very early, and was much practised in the houses

of the gentry in England. There are frequent references to it in Shakespeare.

VALENTINIAN (VALENTINIANUS), the name of three Roman emperors. I. FLAVIUS, born in Cibalis, Pannonia, in A. D. 321, died in Bregetio, Germany, Nov. 17, 375. He was the son of Count Gratian, and early entered the army, where he showed military ability; and on the accession of Jovian in 363 he was made captain of the second company of the guards. On the death of Jovian at Dadastana in Feb. 364, the throne was offered by the army leaders to Valentinian, who was then at Ancyra. He assumed the purple on the plains of Nicæa, Feb. 26, and after reaching Constantinople made his brother Valens associate emperor with the control of the eastern provinces. Valentinian then went to Italy, and for some years was engaged in protecting the frontiers of the empire, which were threatened by the Alemanni, the Saxons, and other barbarian tribes. He first fixed his head-quarters at Paris, and during 366 the Alemanni were defeated by his general Jovinus, the master of the horse. The following winter was spent at Rheims, in building forts and taking other means of defence against the incursions of the Germans. In 367 the Alemanni surprised and plundered Moguntiacum (now Mentz); but the emperor drove them back into their own country, defeating them at a place called Solicinum. In 370 the Saxons, who had made an incursion into Roman territory, were destroyed by an ambuscade. The following years were spent by Valentinian chiefly at Treves, but the winter of 373 was passed at Milan. In 374 he made preparations for a campaign against the Quadi, but died just as he was on the point of setting out. He was one of the ablest of the Roman emperors, but his character was disfigured by passion and cruelty. In his reign polygamy is said to have been allowed in the Roman empire; but the statement is doubtless untrue. He was a Catholic, but did not persecute either Arians or heathens, though stringent laws were enforced against the practice of magic. He was succeeded by his son Gratian. II. FLAVIUS, son of the preceding, born about 371, strangled May 15, 392. Immediately on the death of his father, he was raised by the army to the imperial dignity, being but 4 or 5 years old; and although his brother Gratian consented to this arrangement, and made a partition of the western empire, according to which he had the Gauls, Spain, and Britain, and Valentinian Italy, Illyricum, and Africa, Gratian really exercised the supreme authority over all the territory until his murder in 383. His murderer, the usurper Maximus, did not disturb Valentinian, whose residence was chiefly at Milan, until 387, when he suddenly invaded Italy; and the young emperor with the imperial family fled to Thessalonica to implore the aid of Theodosius. (See THEODOSIUS.) In 388 Theodosius conquered Maximus, and restored to his brother-in-law the empire of the West. The few remaining years of his reign

were spent chiefly in Italy and Gaul, in which latter country he became involved in a quarrel with his powerful general Arbogastes, who was seeking to gain the supreme control of his monarch. While at Vienna in Gaul he handed to Arbogastes a paper dismissing him from all his offices; but that general, relying on the support of his creatures, told the prince that his authority did not depend upon the smile or the frown of a monarch, and threw the paper on the ground. A few days later Valentinian was found strangled in his apartment. III. PLACIDIUS, born about 419, assassinated in 455. He was the son of Constantius and Galla Placidia, daughter of Theodosius I. After the death of Honorius in 423 he was sent with his mother to Italy, the sovereignty of which country had been usurped by Joannes; and in Oct. 425, he received from the emperor of the East the purple and the title of Augustus. The administration of the government was for a long time really carried on by Placidia, and the first years of his reign were marked by the disastrous rivalry between the last two great Roman generals, Aëtius and Bonifacius, and the consequent loss of Africa. In 437 Valentinian was married at Constantinople to Eudoxia, daughter of Theodosius. In the mean time the extreme provinces of the western empire were gradually attacked on all sides, and the Roman possessions were constantly diminishing in size. In 451 Aëtius defeated Attila near Châlons-sur-Marne; but in 452 the latter invaded Italy, which hitherto had been free from incursions, and after ravaging the north retired. Aëtius was not long afterward killed by Valentinian's own hand, whose feeble mind had long been jealous of the commanding intellect and haughty character of his greatest general. Valentinian himself, the following year, while viewing a spectacle in the Campus Martius, was slain at the instigation of the patrician Petronius Maximus, whose wife the emperor had a short time before violated, and who usurped the throne. Valentinian was the last of the Theodosian line, and his vices were as conspicuous as his mental powers were contemptible. VALENTINIANS. See GNOSTICS, vol. viii.

p. 321.

VALENTINOIS, DUCHESS OF. See DIANA OF POITIERS.

VALERIAN (valeriana), a perennial herbaceous plant, typical of the natural order valerianacea of Lindley. The V. officinalis (Linn.), has pinnated leaves; the inflorescence corymbed, but by expansion panicled; the flowers small, monopetalous, 5-limbed, funnel-shaped, white, strongly scented; the rootstocks small, short, round or oblong-truncated, with numerous fibres issuing from the crown. It is found growing wild in the meadows of Europe, but cultivated in gardens. The qualities of this plant are best known in medicine, being nervine, tonic, antispasmodic, and employed in nervous affections. The part used consists of the rootstock with its fibres; it is gathered in the autumn or

The V.

early spring from plants 2 or 3 years old, and which grow in stony and rather dry places. The odor is heavy, and is scarcely impaired by time; to many it is eminently disagreeable. For a long time it was supposed that this was the plant indicated by Dioscorides, until Dr. Sibthorp detected in Greece another species which he called V. Dioscoridis, and which is probably the dou of that early writer. The garden valerian (V. phu, Linn.), which grows on the European Alps, is also distinct, though considered by Linnæus to be the classical one. They are however all valuable for their potency. The red valerian (V. rubra) is admitted into the flower gardens, the blossoms being thought very handsome. There are several other European species; and some closely allied genera indigenous to the East are supposed to furnish the precious spikenard of antiquity.-In the United States there are several species. The wood valerian (V. sylvatica, Banks, closely allied to the V. dioica of Europe) is found from Newfoundland to the plains among the Rocky mountains and elsewhere in woods in the United States. The few-flowered valerian (V. pauciflora, Mx.), with a simple, slender, somewhat decumbent stem, leaves pinnately and ternately divided, flower pale pink, tube of corolla slender, nearly an inch long, may be found along the Alleghany mountains from Virginia to Tennessee and in the western states. capitata (Willd.) is 1 to 3 feet high, with leaves 3 to 5-pinnate, corolla whitish or rose color, flowers in cymes more or less expanded, and nearly allied to the V. tripteris of Europe. It is a northern species, and found by Chamisso at Kotzebue's sound, by Richardson on the arctic coast, and in woods at the Rocky mountains by Drummond. The edible valerian (V. edulis, Nuttall) has an erect stem, fusiform root, somewhat fleshy, deeply pinnatifid and pinnate leaves, and small white flowers in panicled clusters. The thick and spindle-shaped black roots, though bitter and apparently pernicious, are baked on heated stones or steamed under ground and converted into a pulpy mass, rather agreeable to the taste and not unwholesome; thus prepared, they afford food to the aborigines in the valleys of the Rocky mountains. An allied species, V. ciliata (Gray), has a very glabrous, striate, simple stem; somewhat fleshy, glabrous, densely ciliate leaves, the radical ones entire, the cauline 3 to 9-pinnate, parted; flowers in an elongated compound panicle; the fusiform root 6 to 12 inches long, in color and appearance resembling a carrot, but inclined to branch horizontally below, bitter, aromatic, and mucilaginous. It grows in swamps and alluvial prairies of Ohio, Wisconsin, and Upper Canada.-The valerianacea also comprise many beautiful flowering plants.

VALERIAN (PUBLIUS LICINIUS VALERIANUS), a Roman emperor, who reigned from A. D. 253 to 260. He was descended from a noble Roman family, and, after having risen by successive steps to the highest honors of the state, was

fixed upon by the emperor Decius, who in 251 had determined to revive the censorship, as the fittest person for that post; but he was saved from discharging the unenviable duties of the office by the death of the emperor. By his successor Gallus, Valerian was sent to bring the legions of Gaul and Germany to aid in quelling the rebellion of Emilianus; but before his arrival Gallus had been slain. His victorious opponent shared the same fate, and Valerian was called to the throne. He immediately associated with himself in the empire his son Gallienus. His whole reign was spent in resisting the assaults made on the empire by the barbarian tribes of Franks, Alemanni, and Goths, and in the East by the Persians. Leaving the defence of the West to his son and to his lieutenant, the emperor marched against the Persian monarch, but was taken prisoner with his army, and the victory of Sapor was followed by the capture of Antioch and the overrunning of Asia Minor. According to the common account, Valerian was constantly exposed to the multitude, clad in imperial purple, and chained, and the Persian monarch placed his foot on his neck whenever he mounted his horse. He died in captivity, and after his death his skin was stuffed with straw, and kept for centuries in the most magnificent temple in Persia. The accounts of Valerian's reign are of the most uncertain and contradictory character, and the chronology is especially beset with difficulties. He was succeeded by his son Gallienus.

VALERIUS CORVUS, MARCUS, a Roman general, born about 371 B. C., died about 271. In 349, being tribune under Camillus in his campaign against the Gauls, he accepted the challenge of a gigantic barbarian to single combat, and killed his antagonist with the assistance of a raven which perched upon Valerius's helmet, and as often as he advanced upon his foe flew at the Gaul's face. A general battle then ensued, in which the Romans were completely victorious. From this circumstance Valerius derived his surname of Corvus (a raven). He was made consul the next year, and the same honor was conferred upon him 5 times afterward. In his 3d consulship, at the age of 29, he gained two brilliant victories over the Samnites at Mount Gaurus and at Suessula. In 343 he was appointed dictator in consequence of a mutiny in the army, which he quelled by his personal popularity. He was dictator again in 301, when he defeated the Marsi and EtrusThe last 28 years of his life were passed in retirement. He held curule dignities 21 times, repeatedly enjoyed the honors of a triumph, and is frequently referred to by the Roman writers as a memorable example of the favors of fortune.

cans.

VALERIUS FLACCUS, CAIUS, a Latin poet, born in Padua, flourished in the time of Vespasian. Nothing is known of his life, and his only work now extant is the unfinished heroic poem called the Argonautica, in which

he narrates the adventures of Jason and his companions. His style is unaffected, his versification harmonious, and his diction pure and polished; and Wagner even places him next to Virgil among the Latin epic poets, an opinion in which few modern critics coincide with him. The best editions are those of Burmann (Leyden, 1724) and Lemaire (Paris, 1824).

VALERIUS MAXIMUS, a Roman author, who flourished during the reign of Tiberius. Nothing is known of his life except that he accompanied Sextus Pompey into Asia. His name is appended to a collection of historical anecdotes under the title of De Factis Dictisque Memorabilibus Libri IX. The compilation embraces a large variety of subjects, and as a historical authority is of some value. Though the author lived during the reign of the first emperors, the style is so very poor that Erasmus said the Latin bore no more resemblance to that of Cicero than a mule does to a man. Abridgments of the work were made by Titus Probus, Julius Paris, and Januarius Nepotianus. Those of the two last named were discovered by Cardinal Mai in the library of the Vatican. Appended to the work of Valerius Maximus is a fragment entitled De Nominibus, Prænominibus, Cognominibus, Agnominibus, Appellationibus, Verbis, of which the first chapter only is extant. It professes to be an epitome made by Julius Paris, but probably it had no connection with the work of Valerius. The best editions of Valerius Maximus are those of Torrenius (4to., Leyden, 1726) and C. Kempfius (8vo., Berlin, 1854). The work was translated into English by W. Speed (8vo., London, 1698).

VALERIUS PUBLICOLA. See PUBLICOLA. VALETTA, or LA VALETTA, a seaport town, capital of the island of Malta, situated on the N. E. coast, in lat. 35° 54′ N., long. 14° 31′ E.; pop. estimated at 30,000. It occupies an elevated peninsula between two harbors, the one on the E., called the Great harbor, extending about 2 m. inland. It is strongly fortified; the forts St. Elmo, Ricasoli, St. Angelo, Tigne, and Manuel command the approach by sea, and 5 lines of fortifications, mounting 1,000 guns, and hornwork, extend across the isthmus. The ground upon which it stands is very uneven, and the streets are connected by flights of steps. The cathedral was built in 1580, and is exceedingly interesting from the number of monuments in marble and bronze, paintings, and curious relics which it contains. The keys of Jerusalem, Acre, and Rhodes are deposited in it. There are 19 other churches. The palace of the grand master of the knights of St. John is now occupied as the governor's residence. It contains a corridor hung with the portraits of the knights; an armory with many kinds of ancient armor and 10,000 muskets; and a library and museum adjoining. The university was founded toward the close of the 18th century, and has faculties of divinity, law, medicine, and arts. There are naval, military, and civil hospitals. The other buildings most worthy of notice are