least in humankind, always mixed and complicated, never altogether good nor altogether bad, no hero without a fault, and no villain without a germ of virtue. Life is really made that way. The true realist is not the materialist, the five-sense naturalist, but the man who takes into account the human soul and God as ultimate realities.

Thackeray's personal life had nothing that was remarkable and much that was admirable. It was simply the background of his genius. He was a child of the upper-middle class in England-if you know just what that means. He went to the Charterhouse School in London (which he afterward immortalized as Greyfriars in The Newcomes), and illustrated his passion for reality by getting his nose broken in a fight, which gave his face a permanent Socratic cast. At Cambridge University he seems to have written much and studied little, but that little to good purpose. He inherited a modest fortune, which he spent, not in riotous living, but in travel, art study in Paris, and in the most risky of all extravagances, the starting of new periodicals. When this failed and his money was gone, he lived in London as a hack. writer.

His young wife was taken from him by that saddest of all bereavements— the loss of her mind. It became necessary to place her in a private sanitarium, where she outlived her husband by thirty years. To her and to the two little daughters whom she left him Thackeray was faithful and devoted. He never complained, never flinched into an easy way of escape from his burden. He bent his back to it, and, in spite of natural indolence, he worked hard and was cheerful.

He made a host of friends and kept them, as R. L. Stevenson puts it, "without capitulation." Of course this grim condition implies some frictions and some dislikes, and from these Thackeray was not exempt. The satire which was his first mode in writing was too direct and pungent to be relished by those who had any streak of self-humbug in their

make-up. But, so far as I know, he had only one serious literary quarrel-that unhappy dispute with Mr. Edmund Yates, in which Dickens, with the best intentions in the world, became, unfortunately somewhat involved. Thackeray might perhaps have been more generous and forgiving-he could have afforded that luxury. But he could not have been more honest and frank, more real, than he was. Being very angry, and for a just cause, he said so in plain words. Presently the tempest passed away. When Thackeray died in 1863, Dickens wrote:

No one can be surer than I of the greatness and goodness of his heart.

The first period of his life as a man of letters was given almost entirely to satirical and fragmentary writing, under various noms de guerre. Hence he remained for a long time in comparative poverty and obscurity, from which he stepped into fame and prosperity with the publication of his first large novel, Vanity Fair, in 1847-8. It was like turning the corner of Grub Street and coming into Glory Avenue.

Henceforth the way was open, though not easy. The succession of his big, welcome novels was slow, steady, unbroken. Each one brought him thousands of new readers, and the old ones were semper fideles, even when they professed a preference for the earlier over the later volumes. His lecture tours in Great Britain and the United States were eminently successful-more so, I think, than those of Charles Dickens. They may have brought in less money, but more of what old William Caxton, the prince of printers, called "good fame and renommee." The last of his completed books, and one of his most delightful, was Roundabout Papers-a volume of essays that has no superior in English for a light, firm, friendly touch upon the realities of life. His last story begun was Denis Duval, and on this he was working when he laid down his pen on Christmas Eve, 1863, and fell asleep for the last time.

It was Edmund Yates who wrote of him then:

Thackeray was dead; and the purest English prose writer of the nineteenth century and the novelist with a greater knowledge of the human heart, as it really is, than any other with the exception perhaps of Shakespeare and Balzac was suddenly struck down in the midst of us.

The human heart as it really is—there's the point! That is what Thackeray sought to know, to understand, to reveal, and-no! not to explain, nor to judge and sentence-for that, as he well knew, was far beyond him or any of us--but his desire was to show the real heart of man, in its various complexities and perplexities, working its way through the various realities and unrealities amid which we are all entangled.

The acute French critic, Edmond Scherer, distinguishes and divides between George Eliot as a novelist of character," and Thackeray as “a novelist of manners." The epithet will pass only if we take the word in the sense of William of Wykeham's motto, "Manners makyth man."

For, as surely as there is something in the outward demeanor which unveils and discloses the person within, even so surely is there something in behavior, the habitual mode of speech and conduct, which molds the man using it. A false behavior weaves a texture of lies into the warp of his nature. A true behavior weakens the hold of his own selfdelusions, and so helps him to know what he really is-which is good for him and for others.

It was in this sense that Thackeray was interested in manners, and depicted them in his books. Go with him to a ball, and you arrive at the hour of unmasking; to a club, and you hear the thoughts under the conversation; to a play, and you pass behind the footlights and the paint; to a death-bed, andwell, do you remember the death of Helen in Pendennis? and of the Colonel in The Newcomes? Foolish critics speak

of these last two passages as cc scenes." Scenes! By Heaven! no, they are realities. We can feel those pure souls passing.

Let us follow this clue of the passion for reality through the three phases of Thackeray's work.

At first he is the indefatigable satirist, rejoicing in the assault. Youth .is almost always inclined that way-far more swift and sweeping in judgment, more severe in condemnation, than maturity or age. Thackeray writes much that is merely amusing, full of high spirits and pure fun, in his first period. But his main business is to expose false pretentions, false methods, false principles in literature and life; to show up the fakers, to ridicule the humbugs, to convict the crooks of every rank and degree.

Here is, for example, a popular fashion of books with criminals and burglars for heroes and heroines, portrayed in the glamour of romance. Very well, our satirist, assuming the name of Ikey Solomons, Esq., will take a real criminal, a murderess, and show us the manner of life she leads with her associates. So we have Catherine. Here is another fashion of weaving a fiction about a chevalier d'industrie, a bold, adventurous, conscienceless fellow, who pursues his own pleasure with a swagger, and makes a brave show hide a mean and selfish heart. Very well, a fellow of this kidney shall tell his own story and show himself in his habit as he lives, and as he dies in prison. So we have The Memoirs of Barry Lyndon, Esq. Here are innumerable fashions of folly and falsehood current not only in high society, but also in the region of respectable mediocrity, and in the "world belowstairs." Very well, our satirist, under the name of "Jeames Yellowplush," or "M. Angelo Titmarsh," or "Fitz-Boodle," will show them up for us. So we have various bundles of short stories and skits and sketches of travel, some of them bubbling over with fun, some of them, like Dennis Haggarty's Wife, touched with quiet pathos.

The culmination of this satiric period is The Book of Snobs, which appeared serially in the London Punch, 1845-6. In order to understand the quality and meaning of Thackeray's satire-an element which stayed with him all through his writing, though it was later subdued to its proper place we must take the necessary pains to know just what he meant by a "snob."

A snob is an unreal person who tries to pass himself off for a real person, a pretender who meanly admires and imitates mean things, an ape of gentility. He is a specific variety of the great genus Sham. Carlyle, the other notable English satirist of the nineteenth century, attacked the whole genus with heavy artillery. Thackeray, with his light cavalry of ridicule, assailed the species.

All snobs are shams, but not all shams are snobs. The specific qualities of the snob are developed only in countries. where there are social classes and distinctions, but no insuperable barriers

between them. Thus in native India with its immutable caste, or in Central Africa with its general barbarism, I fancy it must be difficult to discover snobbism. (Yet I have seen traces of it even among dogs and cats.) But in a country like England or the United States of America, where society is arranged in different stories, with staircases between, snobbism is frequent and flourishing. The snob is the man who tries to sneak up-stairs. He is the surreptitious climber, the person who is ashamed to pass for what he is.

Has he been at an expensive college? He goes home and snubs his old friends with allusions to the distinguished society he has been keeping. Is he entertaining fashionable strangers? He gives them elaborate and costly fare at the most aurivorous hotel, but at home his wife and daughters may starve. He talks about books that he has never read, and pretends to like music that sends him to sleep. At his worst, he says his prayers on the street-corners and reviles

his neighbor for sins which he himself cherishes in secret.

That is the snob: the particular species of sham whom Thackeray pursues and satirizes through all his disguises and metamorphoses. He does it unsparingly, yet never—or at least hardly ever-savagely. There is always a strain of good humor in it, and often a touch of fellow-feeling for the man himself, camouflaged under his affectations. It may not be worth while-this kind of work. All satire'is perishable. It has no more of the immortal in it than the unreality which it aims to destroy. But some shams die hard. And while they live and propagate, the arrows which hit them fairly are not out of date.

Stevenson makes a curious misjudgment of this part of Thackeray's work, when he says in his essay on "Some Gentlemen in Fiction":

Personally [Thackeray] scarce appeals to us as the ideal gentleman; if there were

nothing else, perpetual nosing after snobbery at least suggests the snob.

Most true, beloved R. L. S., but did you forget that this is precisely what Thackeray himself says? He tells us not to be too quick or absolute in our judgments; to acknowledge that we have. some faults and failings of our own; to remember that other people have sometimes hinted at a vein, a trace, a vestige of snobbery in ourselves. Search for truth and speak it; but, above all, no arrogance faut pas monter sur ses grands chevaux. Have you ever read the end of the lecture on "Charity and Humor"?

The author... has been described by The London Times newspaper as a writer of considerable parts, but a dreary misanthrope, who sees no good anywhere, who sees the sky above him green, I think, instead of blue, and only miserable sinners around him. So we are, as is every writer and reader I have heard of; so was every being who ever trod this earth, save One. I cannot help telling the truth as I view it, and describing what I see. To describe it otherwise than it seems

to me would be falsehood in that calling in which it has pleased Heaven to place me; treason to that conscience which says that men are weak; that truth must be told; that faults must be owned; that pardon must be prayed for; and that Love reigns supreme over all.

With Vanity Fair begins what some one has called the quadrilateral on which Thackeray's larger fame rests. The three other pillars are, Henry Esmond, Pendennis, and The Newcomes. Which is the greatest of these four novels? On this question there is dispute among critics, and difference of opinion, even among avowed Thackerayans who confess that they "like everything he wrote." Why try to settle the question? Why not let the interesting and illuminating causerie run on? In these furious days when the hysteria of world-problems vexes us, it is good to have some subjects on which we can chat without ranting or raving.

For my part, I find Vanity Fair the strongest, Pendennis the most intimate, The Newcomes the richest and in parts the most lovable, and Henry Esmond the most admirable and satisfying, among Thackeray's novels. But they all have this in common: they represent a reaction from certain false fashions in fiction which prevailed at that time. From the spurious romanticism of G. P. R. James and Harrison Ainsworth, from the philosophic affectation of Bulwer, from the gilding and rococo-work of the supersnob Disraeli-all of them popular writers of their day-Thackeray turned away, not now as in his earlier period to satirize and ridicule and parody them, but to create something in a different genre, closer to the facts of life, more true to the reality of human nature.

We may read in the preface to Pendennis just what he had in mind and

purpose:

Many ladies have remonstrated and subscribers left me, because, in the course of the story, I described a young man resisting and affected by temptation. My object was to

say, that he had the passions to feel, and the manliness and generosity to overcome them. You will not hear-it is best to know it— what moves in the real world, what passes in society, in the clubs, colleges, mess-roomswhat is the life and talk of your sons. A little more frankness than is customary has been attempted in this story; with no bad desire on the author's part, it is hoped, and with no ill consequence to any reader. If truth is not always pleasant, at any rate truth is best, from whatever chair-from those whence graver writers or thinkers argue, as from that at which the story-teller sits as he concludes his labor, and bids his kind reader farewell.

It is amusing, in this age of art undressed, to read this modest defense of frankness in fiction. Its meaning is very different from the interpretation of it which is given by disciples of the "show-everything-without-a-fig-leaf"

school.

Thackeray did not confuse reality with indecency. He did not think it needful to make his hero cut his toenails or take a bath in public in order to show him as a real man. The ordinary and common physical details of life may be taken for granted; to obtrude them is to exaggerate their importance. It is with the frailties and passions, the faults and virtues, the defeats and victories of his men and women that Thackeray deals. He describes Pendennis tempted without making the description a new temptation. He brings us acquainted with Becky Sharp, enchanteresse, without adding to her enchantment. We feel that she is capable of anything; but we do not know all that she actually did—indeed Thackeray himself frankly confessed that even he did not know, nor much care.

The excellence of his character-drawing is that his men and women are not mere pegs to hang a doctrine or a theory on. They have a life of their own, independent of, and yet closely touching his. This is what he says of them in his essay "De Finibus":

They have been boarding and lodging with

Fault has been found with him (and) that by such high authority as Mr. Howells) for coming into his own pages so often with personal comment or a word to the reader. It is said that this disturbs the narrative, breaks the illusion, makes the novel less convincing as a work of art. Frankly, it does not strike me that way. On the contrary, it adds to the vraisemblance. These men and women are so real to him that he cannot help talking to us about them as we go along together. Is it not just so in actual life, when you go with a friend to watch the passing show? Do you think that what Thackeray says to you about Colonel Newcome, or Captain Costigan, or Helen Pendennis, or Laura, or Ethel, or George Warrington, makes them fade away?

Yes, I know the paragraphs at the beginning and end of Vanity Fair about the showman and the puppets and the box. But don't you see what the parable means? It is only what Shakespeare said long ago:

All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players.

Nor would Thackeray have let this metaphor pass without adding to it Pope's fine line:

Act well your part, there all the honor lies.

Of course there is another type of fiction in which running personal comment by the author would be out of place. It is illustrated in Dickens by A Tale of Two Cities, and in Thackeray by Henry Esmond. The latter seems to me the most perfect example of a historical novel in all literature. More than thatit is, so far as I know, the best portrayal of the character of a gentleman.

The book presents itself as a memoir of Henry Esmond, Esq., a colonel in the service of her Majesty, Queen Anne, written by himself. Here, then, we have

VOL. CXL.-No. 836.-23

an autobiographical novel, the most difficult and perilous of all modes of fiction. If the supposed author puts himself in the foreground, he becomes egotistical and insufferable; if he puts himself in the background, he becomes insignificant, a mere Chinese "property-man' in the drama. This dilemma Thackeray avoids by letting Esmond tell his own story in the third person-that is to say, with a certain detachment of view, such as a sensible person would feel in looking back on his own life.

Rarely is this historic method of narration broken. I recall one instance, in the last chapter, where Beatrix, after that tremendous scene in the house of Castlewood with the Prince, reveals her true nature and quits the room in a rage. The supposed author writes:

Her keen words gave no wound to Mr. Esmond; his heart was too hard. As he looked at her, he wondered that he could ever have loved her. . . . The Prince blushed and bowed low, as she gazed at him and quitted the chamber. I have never seen her from that day.

Thackeray made this slip on purpose. He wanted us to feel the reality of the man who is trying to tell his own story in the third person.

This, after all, is the real value of the book. It is not only a wonderful picture of the Age of Queen Anne, its ways and customs, its manner of speech and life, its principal personages-the red-faced queen, and peremptory Marlborough, and smooth Atterbury, and rakish Mohun, and urbane Addison, and soldier-scholar Richard Steele-appearing in the background of the political plot. It is also, and far more significantly, a story of the honor of a gentleman-namely, Henry Esmond-carried through a life of difficulty, and crowned with the love of a true woman, after a false one had failed him.

Some readers profess themselves disappointed with the dénouement of the love-story. They find it unnatural and disconcerting that the hero should win