voice, or by offering food. A thief commits a trespass when he has gotten the control of an article by inspiring fear in the owner. In these cases the law refers the surrender of the ownership to the thief's act of force. Not so, how. ever, when one is induced by a fraud to part with his property. Whatever remedy the defrauded owner may have in such a case in civil jurisprudence, in the criminal law there is no larceny; and though the intent of the taker were ever so felonious, yet the owner's consent renders unnecessary the act of trespass without which, as we have seen, the offence is not complete. But if this consent extended only to a surrender of the possession, while the party who received the article intended at the time to steal it, that is, to divest the owner of his ownership, here the taking goes beyond the right conferred by the consent, and invades the property; the trespass is complete, and larceny is committed. For example, if one obtains goods by falsely personating the party who had ordered them, he is not guilty of larceny, whatever be his intent, for the owner means to pass the property in the goods by the delivery. But, on the other hand, if he gets the loan of an article, his concurrent intent being to steal it, the owner's consent avails him nothing, and he commits the crime. The same principle applies to those cases in which an owner delivers goods with the understanding that the property in them is to pass when the price is paid, but the taker's object is to get possession of them without any intention of performing this condition. -The second intent essential to constitute the crime is the intent to deprive the owner of his ownership, or of his whole right of property, in distinction from any mere particular interest in it. So that he is no thief who takes a horse, however wrongfully, with the intention of using and then returning him. Whether it be essential to the offence that it be committed lucri causa, as the phrase is, that is, for the sake of some advantage to the aggressor, is not quite certain; but it seems to be the better opinion, as we have already intimated, that it is not. The common law distinction between grand and petit larceny, which was determined by the value of the thing stolen, is in the United States very generally abolished. Compound larceny is larceny aggravated by taking the thing stolen from the house or person of the party against whom the theft is committed.

LARCH. See FIR.

LARCHER, PIERRE HENRI, a French scholar and author, born in Dijon, Oct. 12, 1726, died in Paris, Dec. 22, 1812. He early distinguished himself by his proficiency in Greek and English literature. In 1767 he engaged in a controversy with Voltaire in which he was thought to have the best of the argument. In 1778 he was admitted a member of the academy of belles-lettres, and on the establishment of the imperial university he was appointed professor of Greek in that institution; but he was then over 80 years old, and had to discharge his du

ties by deputy. His death was the result of a fall. His reputation chiefly rests on the translation of Herodotus (Paris, 1786), which is valuable for its geographical and chronological notes. LARD, the oily portion of hogs' fat, separated from the animal tissues by the process called rendering, which is melting it out at the temperature of boiling water, and commonly with the mixture of a small quantity of water. The best and firmest lard is obtained exclusively from the fat which surrounds the kidneys; but the common qualities of commerce are derived from the entire fat of the animal. To render this harder various adulterating substances are added, as mutton suet, starch, potato flour, and even caustic lime. Alum also is often added with the view of increasing its whiteness; and in England common salt and the carbonates of soda and potash have been detected in samples of it. The presence of water and its quantity may be determined by submitting a weighed portion to moderate heat; it escapes in bubbles, and when these cease to appear the loss of weight indicates the proportion. If starch is present, it will cause a solution of iodine with which a particle of the lard is mixed to turn blue or even black. The proportion of the adulterating ingredients sometimes amounts to more than 25 per cent., of which the chief article is some farinaceous substance. Water has been found to the extent of 12 per cent.; alum of 2 to 3 per cent.; and quicklime of 1 per cent. Lard as prepared is run into kegs, but the best qualities are collected in England in bladders, and are distinguished by the name of bladder lard. When pure, the article should be firm and white, and entirely free from taste or smell; it should melt at 212° F. without bubbling, and without depositing any sediment; the melted fluid should be nearly as clear and transparent as water. Its melting point varies from 78.5° to 87.5° F. Its composition in 100 parts, as given by Braconnet, is: stearine and margarine 38, oleine 62.-Lard is extensively used in culinary operations as an article of food; it enters into the composition of pastry, and is the material in which fish and other articles are commonly fried. In this operation the presence of flour is sometimes indicated by the substances fried adhering to the pan. In pharmacy lard is the material which forms the bulk of most of the ointments and cerates. A good article for this use, that contains no noxious ingredients, and is not liable to melt in warm climates, is difficult to be procured. The substance is also employed for lubricating machinery, for which use it is particularly important that it should be free from glutinous adulterants. By the separation of the stearine and margarine from lard the oily product called lard oil is obtained. The manufacture of this is carried on to an immense extent in Cincinnati, where, as seen in the article CINCINNATI, its value is estimated at $1,817,480 per annum, and that of lard at $1,282,453. Of the stearine are made candles valued at $1,334,972, and

other portions of lard enter into the production of soap, the value of which is rated at $208,940. In 1850 it was estimated that 11,000,000 lbs. of lard would be made into stearine and lard oil, the stearine amounting to of the whole, and the oil to 24,000 barrels of 42 gallons each. A large portion of this oil is sent to France, where by the skill of the chemist it is incorporated with olive oil, to the amount of 60 or 70 per cent., the mixture then coming back to be sold as pure olive oil. Some interesting properties of lard when combined with rosin, in the proportion of 3 parts by weight of lard to 1 of rosin, were communicated by Prof. Olmsted to the American association at their meeting in New Haven in 1850. When melted together, the mixture is semi-fluid in cold weather. When applied to leather, it renders it very soft and impermeable to air and moisture, and it is particularly well adapted for lubricating the pistons of air pumps, as it is found to protect the brass from corrosion, which the ordinary lubricants induce. The rosin appears to prevent the formation of an acid in the lard, and thus the compound is well adapted to protect the surface of any metal from rust. When used for iron, a little powdered graphite may be added. When the mixture is used instead of other oily substances for making soap, the tendency of this to become rancid when wet and remaining damp is checked. Other uses readily suggest themselves. As an illuminating agent in solar lamps, Prof. Olmsted found lard oil combined with rosin superior for a time to lard oil alone, but the wick after a time became clogged, lessening the brilliancy of the light.-Over 28,000,000 lbs. of lard were exported from the United States in the year ending June 30, 1859, valued at nearly $3,300,000.

LARDNER, DIONYSIUS, LL.D., a British writer on physical science, born in Dublin, April 3, 1793, died in Paris, April 29, 1859. After 4 years' experience in the office of his father, a solicitor, he entered Trinity college, Dublin, in 1812, and was graduated in 1817. He continued a resident member of the university until 1827. During his college career he evinced an extraordinary aptitude for mathematical studies, and gained between 15 and 20 prizes in metaphysics, pure mathematics, natural philosophy, astronomy, and moral philosophy. He took orders, and was for some time chaplain at his college; but he subsequently laid aside the title of reverend and desisted from all clerical functions. During his residence at the university he published various mathematical works, including an edition of the first 6 books of Euclid, with a commentary, and contributed a number of articles on mathematical subjects to the "Edinburgh Encyclopædia" and the "Encyclopædia Metropolitana," and a series on various branches of natural philosophy to the "Library of Useful Knowledge." In 1828 appeared his "Popular Lectures on the Steam Engine," for which he received a gold medal from the royal Dublin society. Upon the establishment of the London

university he accepted the professorship of natural philosophy and astronomy; and fixing his residence in London in 1828, he published in the same year a "Discourse on the Advantages of Natural Philosophy," and an "Analytical Treatise on Plane and Spherical Trigonometry." This was followed by the "Cabinet Cyclopædia," commenced in 1830 and continued till 1844, embracing 132 vols. 12mo. In this work Dr. Lardner secured the coöperation of the most eminent authors of the day in every branch of literature, and many of the treatises, historical, scientific, or economic, are still regarded as standard works. His own contributions comprised treatises on arithmetic, geometry, heat, hydrostatics and pneumatics, and mechanics, the last in conjunction with Captain Kater, each in 1 vol., and "Lardner and Walker's Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism" (2 vols.). While engaged on this work he wrote occasional articles on physical science and its application to the useful arts for the periodicals, and was frequently before parliamentary committees as a witness in behalf of railway companies. In 1840 he eloped with the wife of a Captain Heavyside, and came to the United States. He was sued for damages, and a verdict for £8,000 was entered against him. He married this lady after her husband's death. During 5 years' residence in America he delivered in the chief cities a series of lectures, which were published and have passed through 15 editions. On his return to Europe in 1845 he settled in Paris, where he resided until his death. His remaining works are: "Railway Economy" (8vo., 1850), valuable for its statistics; "Handbook of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy" (2 vols. 12mo., 1851-2); "The Great Exhibition Reviewed" (12mo., 1852); the "Museum of Science and Art," a series of excellent popular treatises on the physical sciences and their application to the industrial arts, commenced in 1854 and completed in 12 vols. 12mo.; and handbooks of "Natural Philosophy and Hydrostatics," of "Pneumatics and Heat," of "Natural Philosophy and Mechanics," of "Natural Philosophy, Electricity, Magnetism, and Acoustics," and of "Natural Philosophy and Optics" (8vo., 1854-6). His life was one of incessant labor, and few men have done more to diffuse scientific knowledge among the people.

LARDNER, NATHANIEL, an English Unitarian divine, born in Hawkshurst, Kent, in 1684, died there in 1768. He was educated at London, Utrecht, and Leyden, and was the author of many valuable theological works. That on which his fame chiefly rests is his "Credibility of the Gospel History" (5 vols. 8vo., 1757). There are two complete editions of Dr. Lardner's works, the last in 10 vols. 8vo. (London, 1828), and the other in 5 vols. 4to. (London, 1815).

LARES, a class of inferior divinities or protecting spirits in ancient Rome, domestic and public. Their worship was closely connected with that of the Manes, but only the spirits of the good were honored as Lares. The household Lares were headed by the Lar familiaris,

who was revered as the founder of the family. When the latter changed abode, he followed them. The worship of the public Lares is said to have been introduced by Servius Tullius; it was renewed by Augustus. They were considered as the protecting spirits of the city, and had a temple in the Via Sacra. There were others who were regarded as presiding over the several divisions of the city, over the rural districts, high roads, &c. In great houses the images of the household Lares had their separate apartment, called ædicula or lararium. Their worship was simple; they received offerings in patella, especially on the calends, nones, and ides of every month. On joyful occasions they were adorned with wreaths. (See PENATES.) LARISSA (Turk. Yenitcher), a town of European Turkey, in the district of Trikala, forming part of the province or eyalet of Salonica, in lat. 39° 52′ N., long. 22° 40′ 15′′ E.; pop. about 25,000, including 15,000 Turks, and the rest Greeks, Jews, &c. It is situated on a gently rising ground on the river Selembria (anc. Peneus), crossed here by a bridge of 10 arches. Larissa is the seat of a Greek archbishop and of a Turkish pasha, possesses some manufacturing establishments, and trades in the products of the country. Larissa was an important town in the ancient Grecian province of Thessalia, and celebrated for its bull fights. It is said to have been founded by Acrisius, king of Argos. In process of time its inhabitants attained considerable power, and became lords of the surrounding plain, and the town the capital of Pelasgiotis. In the Peloponnesian war they supported Athens against Sparta. They were afterward reduced to subjection, in common with the other Thessalians, by the Macedonians under Philip, the father of Alexander. On the overthrow of the Macedonian kingdom their city was taken by the Romans, with whose destinies those of Larissa were bound up till the capture of Constantinople by the Turks.

LARISTAN, a S. province of Persia, bordering on the Persian gulf, and bounded landward by Kerman and Fars; area about 16,000 sq. m. It is one of the poorest divisions of the empire, consisting mainly of an arid sandy waste, with salt steppes and several mountainous elevations, the highest of which are Mounts Tcharek, Kor, Khalatu, and Nabent. There is a scarcity of water, the principal river being the Div-rood, and there is little or no agriculture beyond the raising of small quantities of wheat, barley, and, dates. The coast is occupied by Arabs, who live under their own sheik, and pay an insignificant sum for tribute. Capital, Lar.

LARK, a conirostral bird of the family alaudida, coming in many respects near the finches. The family characters are: a short and conical bill with the frontal feathers extending along the sides; the first primary very short or wanting; the tarsi scutellate before and behind; the hind claw very long and nearly straight; the tertials greatly elongated beyond the secondaries and nearly as long as the primaries. The genus

alauda (Linn.) belongs to the old world, and is found on plains and cultivated lands, migrating to the south in winter; many species sing while rising into the air in large circles or in a perpendicularly spiral manner to a very great height; the flight is undulating; they walk and run with ease. The food consists of grains, small seeds, grasshoppers, gnats, and small worms; the nest is usually placed in the grass on the ground. The sky lark or field lark (A. arvensis, Linn.), so celebrated in poetry for its song, is very generally distributed over Europe, Asia, and northern Africa. It is about 7 inches long and 15 in extent of wings; the general color of the upper parts in both sexes is light reddish brown with darker streaks, the fore neck the same with brownish black spots, the sides streaked with dusky, the lower parts dull white, an obscure brownish white band over the eye, the quills and the outer tail feathers edged with white, and the iris hazel. Though the plumage is dull, the form is elegant; its song is not finely modulated nor mellow, but it is exceedingly cheerful and prolonged, making the welkin ring in the sunny days of spring, and in early morning sounding from on high when the sprightly songster is entirely out of sight; this, combined with its extraordinary power of flight, has associated the lark with the most delightful recollections of rural life. It would be very difficult to imitate its song musically; it is occasionally uttered when the bird is on the ground, but usually as it commences its flight; the character of its different strains is such that it is said that one accustomed to the song can tell whether the bird be ascending, stationary, or descending. When on the ground larks are in the habit of crouching, so as to be perceived with difficulty; they rarely if ever alight on trees. They begin to pair in early spring, at which time their song begins, continuing until the middle of autumn; the 4 or 5 eggs are greenish gray, irregularly freckled with darker. The lark rests on the ground at night; its principal enemies are weasels and the smaller hawks. Its flesh is eaten, though inferior to that of the thrushes. It is often kept as a cage bird, even in America, as it sings nearly as well in continement as when at liberty; to prevent injury from its soaring propensities, it is usual to pad the top of the cage. The wood lark (A. arborea, Linn.) resembles the preceding in plumage, but is a smaller bird, being 6 inches long, with an extent of wings of 12 inches; the habits are like those of the sky lark, except that it inhabits woody places and frequently perches on trees; the song, though less diversified, is more melodious, and has been considered inferior only to that of the nightingale; the eggs are pale yellowish brown, with darker lines and freckles. The crested lark (A. cristata, Linn.) has the head surmounted with an erectile tuft of feathers; it is stouter, with longer bill and shorter wings and tail, than the sky lark; it is common in southern Europe. The calandra lark (melano corypha calandra, Boie) is the largest European

species; the color is brown above and whitish beneath, with a large blackish spot on the breast of the male. The habits are nearly the same as in the other species; the song is loud and pleasing; they are usually seen in pairs, and in autumn are very fat and esteemed as food; they are found in southern Europe. Other genera of the foreign larks are pyrrhulauda (A. Smith), found in flocks in Africa and India; megalophonus (Gray), from the dry plains of southern Africa; mirafra (Horsf.), from India and northern Africa; and certhilauda (Swains.), from Africa and Europe.-The only genus of the family found in North America is eremophila (Boie), differing from melanocorypha chiefly in having no spurious first primary; it has a pectoral crescent and cheek patches of black. The American sky lark or shore lark (E. cornuta, Boie; genus otocoris, Bonap.) is about 7 inches long, with an extent of wings of 14 inches; the color above is pinkish brown, streaked with dusky on the back; a broad band across the crown, patch from bill below the eye, crescent on throat, and tail feathers black; frontal band over eye, under parts, outer edge of wings, and tail white, and chin and throat yellow; the colors are lighter in some specimens than in others, especially in winter. The principal peculiarity in the plumage consists in two erectile pointed tufts of feathers on the sides of the head, somewhat resembling the ears of the owls. It is distributed from Labrador over the prairies and desert plains of North America, visiting the Atlantic states especially in winter, when it is very fat and much esteemed as food. Audubon found this lark breeding on the desolate shores of Labrador, making its nest in the mosses and lichens in the beginning of July; the eggs, 4 or 5, are grayish, with numerous pale blue and brown spots; it returns to the south in the early part of September. The song of the males on the wing is very sweet, though comparatively short; the food consists of seeds, insects, and larvæ, and minute crustaceans on the sea shore. The horned lark of Europe and northern Asia (E. alpestris, Boie) is considered a distinct species; the habits are the same.-Birds of the family sylvicolide, of the genus anthus (Licht.), generally called larks, will be described under TITLARK; the redbreasted and meadow larks are starlings, of the family icteridae, and will be noticed under STARLING and MEADOW LARK respectively.

LARKSPUR. See DELPHINIUM. LARNED, SYLVESTER, an American Presbyterian clergyman, born in Pittsfield, Mass., Aug. 31, 1796, died in New Orleans, Aug. 31, 1820. He was the son of Col. Simon Larned, an officer in the war of the revolution, and afterward representative in congress. He received his collegiate education at Middlebury, Vt., studied theology at Princeton, N. J., and was ordained in July, 1817. His earliest efforts showed such rare gifts of eloquence as had scarcely been witnessed since the days of Whitefield. In the autumn and winter following his ordination, he VOL. X.-21

proceeded to New Orleans by the way of Detroit, Louisville, and the Mississippi river, preaching whenever opportunity offered during the three months occupied in the journey. At New Orleans his eloquence made a profound impression on the public mind; an impression to which his personal character, his earnest devotion to his work, and a magnetic influence over men which characterized him alike in and out of the pulpit, added strength. A church was soon organized, and a congregation collected, over which he was settled as pastor, and a large church edifice erected. In the summer of 1820 the yellow fever broke out in New Orleans with unusual violence, and he was urgently entreated to seek safety in flight; but he refused to desert the post of duty, and fell a sacrifice to his fidelity. It is seldom that the death of one so young has caused a sensation of sorrow so universal and so profound as that which followed the announcement of his departure. A memoir of his life, with a collection of his sermons, was published in 1844 by the Rev. R. R. Gurley.

LA ROCHEFOUCAULD, FRANÇOIS VI., duke, prince of Marsillac, a French author and moralist, born Dec. 15, 1613, died March 17,1680. He was in boyhood withdrawn from school to enter the military service, and at the age of 16 was engaged as an officer at the siege of Casale. Of a naturally timid, irresolute, and melancholy character, as he himself has recorded, and unfitted to be a political partisan, he was immediately involved in the intrigues which distracted the court. His father was banished to Blois in 1632 for some connection with the revolt of Gaston of Orleans, and he himself shared his exile, being suspected of hostility to Cardinal Richelieu on account of his intimacy with the friends of Queen Anne of Austria. At Tours he met in 1637 the duchess of Chevreuse, then in correspondence with the queen and the Spanish court. He entered with zeal into the intrigues of women against the cardinal; obtained permission to return to Paris at the moment when the queen, accused of communications with Spain, was subjected to a sort of judicial examination; and, in his devotion to her, accepted her proposal to guide her and Mlle. d'Hautefort in flight to Brussels. He had made preparations for this purpose, when he was discovered to have favored the flight of the duchess of Chevreuse into Spain, and was thrown into the Bastile. Released after 8 days, he went into retirement at Verteuil, preferring to adhere to the queen rather than to accept favors offered by the cardinal. There he lived as a country gentleman, an amateur of dogs, horses, and wines, at the same time corresponding with the enemies of Richelieu and participating in the projects of Cinq-Mars and De Thou. He returned to the court after the death of the cardinal (1642), was received with kindness but was unrewarded by the queen and Mazarin, and showed his resentment by attaching himself to the duke d'Enghien and forming a liaison with his sister, the duchess de Longueville, his devo

322 LA ROCHEFOUCAULD-LIANCOURT

tion to whom for several years was merely a matter of interest and calculation. In the wars and intrigues of the Fronde he served the party of the parliament, proved his valor in the defence of Bordeaux (1650), received a wound in the face, which for a time deprived him of sight, in the fight in the faubourg St. Antoine of Paris, and on the conclusion of peace abandoned the pursuits of ambition for a life of repose and reflection. He described his occupations thus far as a "business for fools and wretches, with which honorable and well-to-do persons should not mingle." To his brilliant and troubled relations with Mme. de Longueville succeeded the friendship of Mme. de Sablé, Mme. de Sévigné, and Mme. de Lafayette; his house became a resort of those most distinguished for wit and culture, of Boileau, Racine, and Molière; and the charms of conversation and the labor of composition displaced the agitations of public life. The subtlety of reflection and habits of meditation, which made him irresolute and unskilful in action, appear in his writings; and some of his severe judgments may be regarded as his retaliation for having been surpassed in practical skill by those whom he excelled in understanding. The first fruit of his leisure was his Mémoires (Cologne, 1662; 3d ed., 1664), which are among the most interesting memoirs of the intrigues against Richelieu and of the period of the Fronde. Three years later he published his Réflexions, ou sentences et maximes morales, a volume of 150 pages containing 360 detached thoughts; the first book, according to Voltaire, written in Europe after the revival of letters in a lively, precise, and delicate style, and which contributed more than any other to form the taste of the French nation. The fundamental and pervading thought, that self-love is the motive of all human actions, is presented under so various aspects and with so much acuteness of observation, that every maxim is piquant and suggestive, though few of them may be true. Though his philosophy is not metaphysical, but founded on the ways of the world, and though his statements are rarely absolute, but affirmed to apply only to the usual conduct of the greater number of persons, yet his rigid and persistent reduction of virtues into disguised vices justifies Rousseau in pronouncing it a "sad book." The only thing, he says, that is really injurious and justly condemned by men, is not vice, but crime. A few of the maxims are of a character to refute all the others, as: "Hypocrisy is a homage which vice renders to virtue;" "It is a greater shame to distrust one's friends than to be deceived by them;" "The greatest misfortunes of men are those into which they fall by their crimes." The Maximes passed through 5 editions in the lifetime of the author, and have been frequently republished. An excellent edition, prepared by Gratel-Duplessis, and edited by Sainte-Beuve, appeared in Paris in 1853.

LA ROCHEFOUCAULD-LIANCOURT, FRANÇOIS ALEXANDRE FRÉDÉRIC, duc de, a French statesman and philanthropist, born Jan.

LA ROCHEJACQUELE

17, 1747, died in Paris, March 27, 1829. Haying fallen under the displeasure of Mme. du Barry, he found little inducement to attend the court of Louis XV., but passed his time chiefly on his estate of Liancourt, where, under the influence of a visit to England in 1769, he established a model farm. He also established there a school of arts and trades, which became the parent of the institution bearing the same name at Châlons. After the destruction of the Bastile in July, 1789, he was appointed president of the national assembly. His efforts to befriend the king, after the life of the latter had been menaced, having brought him into danger, he took refuge in England, where he was well received by Arthur Young, the well known improver of British agriculture, and subsequently travelled in the United States and Canada. Unable to endure his exile, he returned to France in 1799, and for some years lived in obscurity in Paris. Still busy with philanthropic plans, he aided in introducing vaccination into France, and inaugurated the system of dispensaries in Paris. The emperor Napoleon subsequently bestowed upon him the cross of the legion of honor, and admitted him to the chamber of peers, under his hereditary title. The duke resumed the charge of his estates at Liancourt, and after the restoration became a member of the general council of hospitals, and president of the society of Christian morals, in which capacity he labored to abolish the slave trade, and to suppress lotteries and gaming houses. He was for 23 years inspector-general of the school of arts and trades at Châlons, and a member of various public bodies of an industrial and philanthropic character, from most of which he was removed by the ministry in 1823 in consequence of his liberal political views. As a recompense for this persecution he was admitted a member of the academy of sciences, and the academy of medicine appointed him on the commission destined to replace the committee of vaccination, of which he had been president, and which had been suppressed by government. He subsequently inaugurated the system of schools for mutual instruction, and established the first savings bank in France. He was a voluminous writer on the subjects which interested him, and among his publications are works on pauperism, on public instruction, on savings banks, on prison discipline, &c. Among the fruits of his visit to America were an account of the prisons of Philadelphia (8vo., Philadelphia and Paris, 1796), and “Travels in the United States in 1796-'8" (8 vols., Paris, 1800).

LA ROCHEJAQUELEIN, HENRI DU VERGER, comte de, a French royalist, born in the château of La Durbelière, near Châtillon-surSèvres, Poitou, Aug. 30, 1772, killed at Nouaillé, March 4, 1794. His father, the marquis de La Rochejaquelein, having destined him for the career of arms, he was educated at the military school of Sorèze. At the outbreak of the French revolution, with a view of aiding in the defence