Gall. The revival of classical learning gave a new BRARIES. Place. New York city. Maccabæus, and perished in the conquest by Boston 66 Worcester, Mass... American Antiquarian Astor 66 66 Society. 1754 40,000 66 Ilistorical 46 64 Public City 1852 70,000 Society 1812 26,000 Theological Seminary.. Athenæum. Library Company and Loganian Library... Academy of Natural Sciences Library Society State LIBRATION. See Moon. LIBRETTO, a small book, which contains the text for an opera. The most fertile author of librettos in France is Eugène Scribe. Some of the best of Germany are those written by Kind for Weber's Freischütz, and by Helmina von Chézy for Euryanthe. Richard Wagner asserts in his Oper und Drama (Leipsic, 1852) that librettos, to be in the highest sense successful, should be written by the composer of the opera himself. LIBRI-CARRUCCI DELLA SOMMAIA, GUILLAUME BRUTUS ICILE TIMOLÉON, count, a French mathematician and collector of books and manuscripts, born in Florence, Jan. 2, 1803. His father was the count Libri-Bagnano, an Italian adventurer, who was in 1816 condemned at Lyons to 10 years' imprisonment at hard labor and to branding for counterfeiting goods, and who finally became a secret agent of the king of the Netherlands. The son, being an excellent mathematician, became professor at the university of Pisa, where he published in the scientific journals several articles on the theory of numbers, on analysis, and the resolution of indeterminate equations of the first degree. Having been compromised by his political views, he fled in 1830 to France, where the friendship of Arago introduced him to the world of science. Shortly after being naturalized as a Frenchman (Jan. 2, 1833) he was called to the academy of sciences as successor of Legendre. Identifying himself with the doctrinaire party, he became inspector-general of public instruction, obtained the cross of the legion of honor, and was appointed inspector-general of the li braries of France, an office created expressly for him. Several works published by him during this period gave him a widely extended reputation. Among these were his Histoire des sciences mathématiques en Italie depuis la rcnaissance jusqu'à la fin du 17 siècle (Paris, 1838-'41); Souvenirs de la jeunesse de Napoléon (1842); and Lettres sur le clergé et la liberté de l'enseignement (1844); to which may be added many memoirs, articles in magazines, and bib liographical labors in the form of annotated catalogues. During the latter part of the reign of Louis Philippe, Libri began to be suspected of having made use of the facilities afforded by his office of inspector-general of libraries to plunder them extensively. It was asserted that he had purloined the most precious books and MSS. from the libraries of Grenoble, Montpellier, Troyes, Poitiers, and Alby, as well as from the Mazarin collection and that of the arsenal. A report on this subject by M. Bouchy, addressed to the king through M. Gnizot, estimated the literary thefts of Libri, from 1842 to 1847, at the value of more than 500,000 francs. This document, dated Feb. 4, 1848, was found in the hotel of foreign affairs by the victors of Feb. 24, and the case was at once put on trial. After the minutest investigation, Libri, who had escaped to London, was found guilty and condemned (June 22, 1850) to 10 years' imprisonment and degradation from public employment. For 2 or 3 years he continued to send letters, vindicating himself in a haughty tone, to public and literary men. He was also defended by Paul Lacroix, G. Brunet, and others, whose defence was however controverted by Lalanne, Bordier, and Bourquelot. A remarkable paper was written on his behalf by Paul Mérimée entitled Le procès Libri, and published in 1852 in the Revue des deux mondes. Its reflections upon the French magistrates were resented by the government, and the author was sentenced to a brief term of imprisonment. LIBURNIA, in ancient geography, a district of Illyricum along the coast of the Adriatic, now included partly in Croatia and partly in Dalmatia. The country is mountainous, and the inhabitants maintain themselves chiefly by navigation. They were celebrated from early times as sailors. They occupied the northern islands of the Adriatic, and had settlements on the Italian coast. After their ships a kind of swift sailing vessels were styled Liburnæ naves by the Romans. Of all Illyrians the Liburnians first submitted to the sway of Rome. LIBYA, the name given to Africa, or that portion lying between Egypt and the Atlantic, by the ancient geographers. It was also the name of a district between Egypt and Marmarica, which, in contradistinction to the former, was often designated as Libya Exterior. LIBYAN DESERT, that part of the Sahara or Great Desert which lies E. of Fezzan and the country of the Tibboos. It is probably not less than 1,000 m. in length from Tripoli to Darfoor and Waday, and from 500 to 600 m. in width, its E. border being Egypt and Nubia. Un- LIBYAN SEA, the name given by ancient LICE. See EPIZOA, vol. vii. p. 253. LICENSE, in law, may be simply and well defined as a permission. Thus, a permission to go upon the land or enter the house of him who gives it; the permission accorded by a belligerent power to its own subjects or to those of the enemy to carry on a trade interdicted by war; and the permission granted by a state to its citizens to sell certain wares or exercise certain callings, are familiar examples of licenses. The most common and important of these are licenses to keep a tavern, to sell spirituous liquor, to peddle out goods, to sell by auction, and the like. All of these are governed and regulated exclusively by statutes, and these vary in the different states so entirely that it is impossible to state any general principles by which they are governed. In each state, the amount paid by way of tax for the license, if any, the privileges conferred by it, and the precautions against abuse, are determined only by the judgment of the legislatures of the several states, in reference to the wants or peculiar circumstances of each state. It is universally admitted that each state has full power to enact general police regulations for the preservation of the public health and morals. But the question has arisen, whether after a license has been given under a law of the state, it remains within the power of the state, and can be withdrawn or qualified at pleasure. If no fee, premium, or bonus is paid for the license, it seems quite certain that the state retains this power. But if a fee or other pecuniary consideration have been paid for the license, some cases favor the doctrine that there is now a contract between the state and licensee, which can be annulled only by the consent of both parties. Another question has caused much discussion, but seems now to be settled. The state of New York, by 5 statutes passed between 1798 and 1811, gave to certain parties "the sole and exclusive right" of navigating vessels by steam in the waters of the state, for a certain time. Some one claimed a right to navigate these waters on the ground that his vessels were duly licensed, under the laws of the United States, to carry on the coasting trade. The courts of New York decided that this general license gave the licensee no power LICENSE 501 to interfere with the special license of the state of New York. But this decision was overruled by the supreme court of the United States, on the ground that the power "to regulate commerce" given by the constitution of the United States to congress included not only traffic, but intercourse, and therefore all navigation which was not completely internal to any state, and carried on only between the parts of the same. (See 4 Johnson's Chancery R., 150; 17 Johnson's R., 488; and 9 Wheaton, 1. For a license to shipping, under the navigation laws, see SHIPproperty in any thing, and gives no interest. It simply authorizes, or so to speak pardons, an PING.) A mere and proper license transfers no unlawful act. Being a mere permission, it is if one permits another simply to go upon his evident that a license cannot permit any thing land, the alienation of the land will necessarily which the licenser himself cannot do; so that extinguish the privilege. Further, it is clear that the benefit of a license is limited to him who receives it; for as the license transfers no property or interest, the licensee has nothing to assign. Finally, it is characteristic of a license that, as it passes no estate, but rests wholly in the indulgence and will of the licenser, it is revocable at his pleasure. These are the incidents of every mere license; but if the license be supported by the grant of an interest, or be necessary to the enjoyment of a right, it attaches inseparably to it, and partakes of its incidents. It may not only cease to be revocable, but may become capable of assignment. Thus, to borrow a familiar illustration, a permission to hunt in a park, and to carry away the deer killed, is a license so far as it concerns the mere privilege of hunting; but it includes also a grant of the deer. If in such a case the grant of the property be well made, the license is irrevocable. So if one make a sale or gift of a chattel which is situated on his land or in his shop, the license to remove, though not express, but implied in such a case by law, is yet irrevocable, because the licensee has an interest in the chattel which can only be enjoyed by taking it away. But when the irrevocable right which the licensee claims, even under an express license, has the effect of diminishing an owner's control over and enjoyment of his property, the interest or estate alleged in support of it must be a real, legal one. The enjoyment of a mere parol license cannot be pushed continuing interest in lands can be legally raised only by deed, that is, by a formal instrument so far as to create an easement; for such a under seal. So that when one licenses another, by a mere parol permission, to keep hay stacks on his land, or allows the licensee to dig a ditch across it, the privilege in both cases is equally revocable even though it have been executed by the licensee. An easement would have been irrevocable, but that could have been created only by deed. But let it be supposed that one has, with another's permission, erected a building on the land of the latter; a revoca tion of the license in such a case would cause the licensee material injury. He has executed the permission by an expenditure of labor or money, the benefit of which he cannot enjoy if the license to go upon the land can be recalled at the option of the licenser. In such a case a court of equity will sometimes interpose for the protection of the licensee. It regards the revocation in such circumstances as fraudulent, actually, or at least constructively, and, when the threatened injury to the licensee could not be compensated in damages, has construed the execution of the parol permission sufficient to supply the place of a writing, and so to take the case out of the statute of frauds. Courts of law have generally adhered to the strict law doctrines; and, in respect to permanent structures, though there are some decisions which regard the license as coextensive with the duration of the building to which it relates, yet the weight of authority is adverse to this view, and in favor of limiting the licensee's privilege to a right of entry and removal, as in the case of ordinary chattels. The more favorable decisions rest on the doctrine of equitable estoppel, which has been borrowed from the chancery practice, and now forms a means of remedying by common law many wrongs which otherwise would not fall within the range of the common law jurisdiction. The general rule then, in the United States as well as in England, respecting licenses which concern the enjoyment of interests in lands, maintains their revocability, no matter what may have been done in reliance upon them; and no matter whether the question arise between the original parties, or be complicated by conveyance to third persons; for it has been often held that a grantee of the licensee cannot claim an absolute right in the continuance of the license, even though it be essential to the enjoyment of his grant. In international law, licenses are permissions to carry on a trade interdicted during war. The power to grant them rests naturally with the sovereign; but in time of actual hostilities they may be immediately issued by generals or other high military or naval officers. These licenses are liberally construed, but no advantage must be taken of the indulgence which they grant; as for example, by carrying a different kind of goods from that expressly permitted, or by changing, without the consent of the granting power, the person by whom the license was to be used; for, if it be not expressly transferable, the license is personal only. A wrong description of the licensee invalidates the license, and so does a fraudulent alteration of it, even when the person claiming protection is innocent of the fraud. Under United States statutes, ships which engage in the fisheries or in the coasting trade need not be registered like ships which carry on a foreign commerce. It is sufficient if they be enrolled, though they must be every year licensed for the employment or business in which they are to engage. The particular trade is specified in the license, and they are not permitted to engage in any other. The use of a forged or altered license, or of ons issued to any other ship, subjects to forfeiture the vessel and cargo sailing under it. LICHENS, cellular cryptogamous plants, closely allied to the algae and to the fungi, yet generally distinguishable from either by characteristic peculiarities. Thus a lichen may be defined as consisting of a thallus, of apothecia, and of spermagonia. The thallus is the nutritive or vegetating functional part; the apothecia contain the organs of reproduction, and are analogous to the fertile or female flower; the spermagonia contain the fecundating apparatus, and are analogous to the barren or male flowers. There is also another form of reproductive organs, which may be considered as secondary, and which are called pycnidia; these most usually occur in imperfectly developed lichens, or in those whose thallus is of a crustaceous character. In order to understand the structure of lichens, it will be necessary to consider these characteristics in detail. I. The thallus, or organ of nutrition, consists of 4 parts, viz.: 1. The cortical layer, which is ordinarily formed of colorless cellular tissue, but where nearest the exterior surface becomes amorphous and colored, giving rise to a sort of epidermis to be seen in some lichens more than in others. 2. The gonimous layer, which is of a very lively green color, and lies immediately beneath the cortical layer; it is composed of a sort of pavement of opaque cells, not altogether continuous, which gives the lively green tints of some lichens when moistened by the rain. 3. The medullary layer or pith layer, found in the centre of the stem or thallus, and lying beneath the gonimous layer. It has 3 modified conditions as it occurs in different species, viz.: a, composed of a tissue of threads woven together into a loose web, serving to give consistence and elasticity to the plant, which is the most common form; b, composed chiefly of granules in which are often scattering threads and octahedric crystals of oxalate of lime, forming a compact white pith; c, composed of cellular tissue containing gonidia in the interior of the cellules or else between them. 4. The 4th layer is called the hypothalline; it lies beneath all the others, and is indeed that upon which the others are laid, but it is not always visible, and sometimes becomes wholly wanting in the matured condition of the thallus. In the process of development it precedes them all, but it is liable to be arrested after they are in a formative state so as to be hardly traceable or quite invisible. Its structure is filamentous or even cellular, its color generally dark or blackish, sometimes pale, rarely white. There are two forms of the hypothalline layer, viz.: a, the hypothallus, made up of blackish or bluish fibres spreading horizontally, frequently beyond the edge of the thallus, and surrounding it with a delicate fringed line, as seen in lichens which grow upon smooth rocks or on the bark of trees; b, the rhizinæ, root-like fibres, branching, with their extremities sometimes formed like a brush, in color commonly black, but sometimes gray or whit- spores, which, taken up by the atinosphere or ish, giving to some lichens on their inferior sur- washed away by the rains, are ready to germifaces the appearance of a rough pile, or a shaggy nate in such places as are suitable to their aspect; they serve the purpose of affixing the growth. So rapidly may the mere process of lichen to its matrix. The thallus is liable to germination be effected, that spores immersed modifications of these several parts, or its tissue in water upon the slide of the microscope in may be entirely homogeneous. The external the process of examination can be seen propeculiarities of the thallus are: the cyphella, truding filamentary threads of growth from little whitish or yellowish excavations upon the their external walls. When the apothecia are under surface of the thallus of sticta, probably first evolved upon or in the thallus, they conserving in some nutritive function; cephalodia, sist of little buds or nuclei, containing the imglobular-shaped, tuberculous, or shapeless swell- perfect hymeneal layer and its forming asci, ings, looking like morbid excrescences, com. each of which has granular matter in its intemonly paler than the rest of the upper surface rior, which, acted upon by the spermagonia, arof the thallus; isidia, exuberant growths of the ranges itself into the spores which have been thallus into erect, stalked, coral-like, and per- described. III. The spermagonia, or fecundating haps branching excrescences, always of the same organs, the barren or male flowers, so to speak, are color as the thallus itself; lepraria, morbid con- generally very small oblong or rounded bodies, ditions of the thallus, when it becomes converted sometimes in the form of special tubercles, someinto a sterile and pulverulent state; soredia, par- times immersed in the superior surface of the tial pulverulent eruptions of the cortical layer, thallus, and presenting to the eye little papillary often in the form of scattered rounded heaps of or simple perforations (ostioles), of a blackish or spherical particles of a brighter color, sometimes brownish color, though sometimes of the same confined to the border of the thallus, producing general hue as the thallus itself. Each spermaa rich and beautiful edging; variolaria, a con- gonium has a conceptacle, sterigmata, and sperdition of the fruit-bearing organs, where they matia. The conceptacle is composed of a tissue become pulverulent; spiloma, pulverulent spots, of small cells united together into a wall, whose most commonly black, seen upon the thallus, exterior layers are of a similar consistence with and resulting from the presence of small para- that of the thallus, but whose interior wall is sitical fungi similar to what we see upon the transformed into particular organs called sterigfoliage of higher plants. II. The apothecia, or mata. These are either simple or jointed threads, reproductive organs, commonly occupy the cor- straight and undivided, or branching. The celtical layer, but sometimes nestle deeply within lules which make up the sterigmata taper tothe interior tissues. Of those first mentioned, ward their summits, and bear divergent, prowhich are called discoid, there are the follow- tuberant bodies of various shapes in different ing modifications: a, peltate, large, bare apo- species of lichens. When these reach their full thecia; b, scutellate, having an exterior cover- development, they detach themselves from their ing formed of the thallus; c, patellate, having support, and become free corpuscles, ready to a border or edge made of their own sub- be expelled from the conceptacle. Generally stance, and not of the thallus; d, lirellate, ir- only one of these corpuscles is produced from a regularly formed, elongated, or branching apo- sterigma; but when the sterigmata are composed thecia, and often varying in shape in the same of several beads or joints, each joint can prospecies of lichen. The term nucleiform is at- duce its corpuscle, which in fact is the spermatached to those apothecia which nestle more or tium. Frequently a very great number of sperless deeply in the tissue. In internal structure matia are found within the conceptacle, which the apothecia consist of a conceptacle or tegu- have not been' excluded through the ostiole. mentary covering made up of cellular tissue Beside the sterigmata, barren threads are noticeprotecting the hymeneum, in which are found able, which probably are no more than undevelnumerous beaded or jointed threads, among oped sterigmata. These spermatia are remarkwhich are the asci or flask-shaped cells contain- ably constant in form and size as they occur in ing numerous seed-like bodies called spores. It particular lichens, and thus afford excellent speis by these spores that the normal growth of cific distinctions. Thus in some instances they the lichens is effected; their number is often measure of a millimetre in length; some, increased by pustules or gonidia, which when whose form is very attenuate, measure detached act like cuttings, buds, eyes, &c., in a millemetre. Their color is always white, the higher plants. These asci are not constant though under the microscope they appear of a in the number of the spores they contain; clear yellow tint. Their forms are very various, those of some lichens have uniformly 8 spores, acicular, bluntly thickened at the extremities, others 6, 4, 2, and some have only one; still cylindrical, cylindrical but curved, or ellipsoid. others contain a very great number of spores. Compared with the spores, their number is When an ascus contains 8 spores, it is called immense. Among the most convincing proofs octosporous, and so on. The spores, too, differ of their fecundating properties are the facts that much in size, varying indeed from to of there are several lichens destitute of apothecia, a millimetre in length. After a while the hy- which are equally destitute of spermagonia; meneum becomes emptied out from the concep- there are others which in one part of the world tacle, and the asci being dissolved set free the never produce apothecia, but have them abun-. of |