Yale college ir 1737, subsequently embarked in business in the city of New York, and between 1754 and 1758 served in the capacity of alderman. In the latter year he was returned to the colonial house of assembly from the city of New York, and continued a member of that body until 1769, when in consequence of his strong whig views he was unseated by the tory majority. He was chosen a member of the first and second continental congresses, and affixed his signature to the declaration of independence. He subsequently served in the New York provincial congress, in the state assembly and senate, and at the time of his death was a delegate from New York to the continental congress then sitting in York. He was one of the purest and most devoted patriots of the revolution, and rendered important service to the country in his legislative capacity. II. WILLIAM, LL.D., governor of New Jersey, brother of the preceding, born in the province of New York in Sept. 1723, died in Elizabethtown, N. J., July 25, 1790. He was graduated at Yale college in 1741, and subsequently became an eminent member of the bar in New York and New Jersey. Having early espoused the cause of the colonies, he was elected a delegate to the first continental congress from the latter province in 1774, and after the deposition of William Franklin in 1776 succeeded to the office of governor, which he retained to the close of his life. He was an upright public magistrate and a devoted republican, and during the period in which the Jerseys were the principal seat of the war was indefatigable in his efforts to keep the militia in a state of efficiency. In 1787 he was a delegate to the convention which framed the federal constitution. He was the author of a poem called Philosophical Solitude," a funeral oration on President Burr of Princeton college, and a variety of political and miscellaneous tracts. III. BROCKHOLST, LL.D., a soldier and jurist, son of the preceding, born in New York, Nov. 25, 1757, died in Washington, March 18, 1823. He was graduated at Princeton college in 1774, and in 1776 became a member of the family of Gen. Schuyler, whom he attended in the capacity of aide-de-camp during the operations of the army in the north. He was subsequently attached to the suite of Gen. Arnold with the rank of major, was present at the surrender of Burgoyne, and before leaving the army was promoted to a colonelcy. In 1779 he went to Spain as private secretary to Mr. Jay, who had married his sister. Returning home after 3 years' absence, he studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1783, was appointed judge of the supreme court of the state of New York in Jan. 1802, and in Nov. 1800 was raised to the bench of the U. S. supreme court. He enjoyed a distinguished reputation as an advocate, a judge, and a scholar. IV. ROBERT R., a statesman and jurist, grandson of the second Robert Livingston, born in the city of New York in 1747, died Feb. 26, 1813. He was graduated at King's (now Columbia) college in 1765. He studied and practised law in New

York, and in 1773 was appointed recorder of that city, a judicial office of which he was soon deprived on account of his participation in the measures which ended in the declaration of independence. He was a member of the second continental congress, and was one of the committee of five appointed to draft the declaration of independence. He was prevented from signing that instrument by a necessary absence. from Philadelphia; but he furthered the cause with zeal and efficiency throughout the war, being a member of congress again in 1780, and secretary of foreign affairs for two years commencing in Aug. 1781. He was also a leading member of the Kingston convention which framed the first constitution of the state of New York, adopted in April, 1777. Thereupon he was appointed the first chancellor of that state, and held the office till 1801, acquiring in it a high reputation as a jurist, though his decisions have not been regularly reported or preserved. The constitutional oath of office taken by Washington on first assuming the duties of president, April 30, 1789, was administered by Chancellor Livingston. Washington afterward tendered to him the post of minister to the court of France, which he declined. On Dec. 14, 1800, Mr. Jefferson, being assured of his election to the pres idency, wrote to Chancellor Livingston inviting him to a seat in the cabinet as secretary of the navy, but the offer was not accepted. In the following February he was once more requested to reside in France as minister plenipotentiary, and he now accepted the place. In April, 1803, he completed the purchase from that country of Louisiana, embracing all the territory now belonging to the United States west of the Mississippi river, excepting Oregon and the region since acquired from Mexico. Mr. Monroe had been despatched as special envoy to assist him in the negotiation, but it was so far advanced before the arrival of the latter that the treaty of cession was signed a few days afterward. Mr. Livingston resigned his post in 1804, and, after travelling over the continent, returned home the next year. During the remainder of his life he was actively engaged in introducing into the state of New York several improvements in agriculture, and in measures for the encouragement of a taste for the fine arts among his countrymen; and he was particularly serviceable to his friend Robert Fulton, with both counsel and material aid, in the early experiments in steam navigation. V. EDWARD, brother of the preceding, an American jurist and statesman, born in Clermont, Columbia co., N. Y., May 26, 1764, died in Rhinebeck, N. Y., May 23, 1836. He was graduated at Princeton college in 1781, studied law at Albany, and, on his admission to the bar in 1785, commenced practice in the city of New York, where at an early age he attained high rank as a jurist and advocate. In 1794 he was elected a representative in congress from the district including the city of New York, and was reelected successively to the following two

congresses, in which he was an opponent of the administrations of Washington and Adams upon the various party questions of the period. In March, 1801, he was appointed by Mr. Jefferson U. S. district attorney for the state of New York, then composing but one judicial district. He was also elected mayor of the city of New York for two years, commencing in 1801. By virtue of the latter office he was at the same time judge of an important municipal court of record. A volume of reports of his judicial opinions, delivered in that court during the year 1802, edited by himself, was published at New York in 1803. During his mayoralty, the city was visited by yellow fever, when his benevolence and intrepidity in remaining at his post nearly cost him his life. He now found his private affairs so involved, through the fault of others it is said, that he was unable to pay his debts, including a considerable balance due to the general government. He promptly resigned his offices and removed to New Orleans, in hopes to retrieve his fortunes by fresh exertions in a new field. In this he succeeded thoroughly, paying his debt to the government in full, principal and interest, and making head against great difficulties, not the least of which was a severe controversy respecting the title which he had acquired to some lands at New Orleans formed by gradual deposits from the annual inundations of the Mississippi river, and called the Batture -a controversy in which, among other opposition, he encountered that of the federal governinent under the personal management of Mr. Jefferson himself. This matter was the subject of a special message to congress of March 7, 1808, and of a pamphlet by the president, as well as of a pamphlet by Mr. Livingston in reply. The latter eventually triumphed in the courts, though the "law's delay" was such that the complete pecuniary fruits of the victory only came to his family long after his death. Many years later Mr. Livingston and Jefferson became heartily reconciled. The former volunteered the necessary overture at a time when his old enemy had long been a private citizen, depressed in fortune, and while his own career, already brilliant, was still fast brightening. At the battle of New Orleans, Mr. Livingston acted as aide-de-camp to Gen. Jackson. Soon after his arrival in the territory, the legislature of Louisiana commissioned him to prepare a system of judicial procedure, which was adopted in 1805, and continued in force until 1825, when it was superseded by the new and elaborate code of practice. In 1823 he was appointed, conjoint ly with Mr. Louis Moreau-Lislet, to revise the civil code of Louisiana, a work which was completed the next year, and substantially ratified by enactment. In the mean time, in 1821, Mr. Livingston was intrusted solely with the task of preparing a code of criminal law and procedure. The next year he made a report of his plan for this work, which was soon afterward reprinted in London and Paris. The work itself was submitted to the legislature in 1826, but was never

directly acted upon by that body, although by a joint resolution of March 21, 1822, the plan had been approved and its completion "earnestly solicited." However, the author derived from its publication great celebrity, both in America and in Europe. It was published at Philadelphia in 1833, in 1 vol. 8vo. He had completed his draft in 1824, and a copy had been made for the printer, when both copies were destroyed by fire. The next day, at the age of 60 years, he commenced the reconstruction of the work, and in two years more it was again complete. Upon this performance the best part of Mr. Livingston's fame rests. It is a comprehensive code, or series of codes, of crimes and punishments, of evidence, of procedure, of reform, of prison discipline, and of definitions, and is characterized throughout by the simplicity of its arrangement and by the wisdom and philanthropy of its provisions. It has visibly influenced the legislation of several countries, and portions of it have been enacted entire by the republic of Guatemala. All these juridical works were required to be prepared in both French and English, and called for the exercise of profound and philosophical knowledge, not only of the laws of England and the United States, but of the French, the Spanish, and the civil law. In 1823, on his retiring from the bar, Mr. Livingston was elected a representative in congress from Louisiana, in which office he continued till 1829, when he was made a U. S. senator from the same state. In 1831 he succeeded Mr. Van Buren as secretary of state of the United States, and in 1833 was appointed by President Jackson minister to France, where he resided until 1835, managing with success several affairs of more than ordinary importance and difficulty. On his return home, he retired to Rhinebeck in his native county. An eloquent eulogy upon his life and works was pronounced by M. Mignet in 1838 before the French academy of moral and political sciences, of which he had been chosen an associate a few years before. Mr. Livingston was a man of very social tastes, great gayety of manners, and perfection of temper. Amiability and goodness of heart are always the terms first employed in describing his character by those who remember him. VI. JOHN H., D.D., grandson of Gilbert Livingston, born in Poughkeepsie, N. Y., May 30, 1746, died in New Brunswick, N. J., Jan. 20, 1825. He was graduated at Yale college in 1762, and began the study of law, but resolved to devote himself to the ministry in the Reformed Dutch church. He studied theology at Utrecht in Holland, where he received the degree of D.D. in 1770; and in the autumn of the same year, having previously been ordained by the classis of Amsterdam, he returned to America, and, in compliance with a call tendered to him while abroad, at once became pastor of the Dutch church in New York city. In 1775 he was married to his third cousin, the daughter of Philip Livingston; and in 1776, having removed from New York on the occupation of that city by the

British, he accepted a call to Albany, where he remained 3 years. He then preached successively at Kingston and Poughkeepsie, and at the close of the war returned to New York. On the recommendation of the theological faculty of Utrecht and the classis of Amsterdam, he was appointed by the general synod of America in 1784 their professor of divinity, but it was not until 1795 that a regular seminary was opened under his direction at Bedford, L. I. This establishment was closed after two years for lack of support. Dr. Livingston then resumed his labors in New York. In 1807 the professorate was united to Queen's college, New Brunswick, N. J., and Dr. Livingston was appointed president and professor of theology. He removed to New Brunswick in 1810, and there passed the rest of his life. His published writings comprise "A Funeral Service;" "Incestuous Marriage," a dissertation on marriage with a sisterin-law (1816); and some occasional pieces. There is a memoir of his life by the Rev. Alexander Gunn (8vo., New York, 1829).

LIVINGSTONE, DAVID, a Scottish traveller and author, born at Blantyre Works, near Glasgow, in 1815. He was descended from a family which had for many generations been established in Ulva, one of the Hebrides group of islands, where his grandfather cultivated a small farm. Finding this occupation inadequate to the support of his family, he removed to Blantyre Works, and with his sons received employment in the cotton mills established there. At 10 years of age David Livingstone was placed in the cotton factory as a "piecer," and in the intervals of his daily labor pursued an extended course of self-instruction, not only studying by night, but contriving while occupied at the spinning jenny to employ much of his time in reading. Partly in this manner and partly by his attendance at an evening school he acquired a knowledge of Latin and Greek, and of various branches of natural science, including botany and geology. In his 19th year he was promoted to be a cotton spinner, and the remuneration for his labors was still steadily devoted to his education. About this time he conceived the idea of going to China as a medical missionary, with which object he attended lectures on medicine and divinity at the university of Glasgow in the winter, resuming his occupation at the mills during the summer vacation of the classes. Having been admitted a licentiate of the faculty of physicians of Glasgow, he prepared to sail for China under the auspices of the London missionary society; but being frustrated in that intention by the breaking out of war between Great Britain and China, he turned his attention to southern Africa, where the labors of the Rev. Robert Moffat were accomplishing favorable results among the natives, and, after a further course of theological instruction in England, embarked in 1840 for Cape Town, which he reached after a voyage of 3 months. From thence he proceeded by the way of Algoa bay to the interior, and passed several years at Kuruman and other places,

studying the language and customs of the Bakwains, a tribe of the Bechuanas, among whom he proposed to establish himself. In 1843 he removed to Mabotsa (lat. 25° 14′ S., long. 26° 30′ E.), where he founded a missionary station, and during the next 6 years labored in his calling there and at Kolobeng, a station about 50 miles further north. In June, 1849, in company with Messrs. Oswell and Murray, two English gentlemen, Dr. Livingstone started on his first exploring expedition into the interior, and on Aug. 1 reached Lake Ngami over the Bakalihari desert, which had for a long time presented insuperable obstacles to persons approaching in that direction, and along the Zonga, a large river issuing from the lake. The position of the lake had previously been pretty accurately defined on the maps, but Dr. Livingstone and his companions were the first Europeans who visited it. The party returned to Kolobeng in October, and in the succeeding year Livingstone made another journey to the lake, but was prevented by the prevalence of fever and of a species of fly very troublesome to cattle from proceeding to the northward of it. In 1851, in company with Mr. Oswell, he again started for the north, and, proceeding in a more casterly direction, reached the great river Zambesi, flowing in the centre of southern Africa. In April, 1852, he accompanied his wife (a daughter of Mr. Moffat) and his children to Cape Town, and, having witnessed their departure for England, returned to Kuruman with the intention of selecting a locality for a new station, which should be free from the annoyances of the Boers, who looked with suspicion upon his efforts to civilize the natives. While at this place he heard of a cruel attack by a party of 400 Boers upon Kolobeng, resulting in the slaughter of 60 natives, the seizure of sever al hundred women and children as slaves, and the plunder of his own house and many others. In Jan. 1853, he departed on his most important northern tour, and in May reached Linyanti (lat. 18° 17′ 20′′ S., long. 23° 50′ 9′′ E.), the principal town of the powerful Makololo tribe, at which he was enthusiastically received by the chief, Sekeletu, and the entire population. Departing thence in November, he proceeded up the Leeambye river and its affluent, the Leeba, to Lake Dilolo (lat. 11° 32′ S.), and thence with considerable difficulty and peril across the Congo river to Angola, at the capital of which country, Loanda, on the western coast of Africa, he arrived May 31, 1854, and was kindly received by the Portuguese authorities stationed there. Leaving Loanda in the ensuing September, he reached Linyanti in Sept. 1855, and thence proceeded down the Leeambye and Zambesi rivers, which he found to be identical, to Quilimane on the Indian ocean, reaching that place May 20, 1856, just 4 years from the time of his last departure from Cape Town. Within that period he had traversed from ocean to ocean a portion of the continent never previously described by Europeans, and had travelled prob

ably upward of 9,000 miles. At Quilimane he was received on board the British gun brig Frolic, in which he was conveyed to Mauritius, whence he returned by the Red sea and the overland route to England, arriving there Dec. 12, 1856. Owing to his long absence from England and his constant intercourse with savage races, his mother tongue had become so unfamiliar to him that at the public meetings given in his honor he found difficulty in expressing himself with fluency. In 1857 appeared his "Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa," a work devoted more particularly to an account of his last great expedition. Having seen this through the press, he sailed in March, 1858, for Quilimane, of which place he had been appointed consul, and subsequently departed on a new exploring expedition up the river Zambesi with a party of scientific men. Occasional accounts have been received from him, by which it appears that the production of cotton, and the overthrow of the slave traffic by the opening of commercial intercourse between the African tribes of the south_and European nations, two projects in which Dr. Livingstone has taken a great interest, are likely to be much advanced by the expedition.

LIVONIA, a W. province of Russia, bounded N. by Esthonia, E. by Lake Peipus and the government of Pskov, S. by Vitebsk and Courland, and W. by the gulf of Livonia or bay of Riga; area, 18,138 sq. m.; pop. in 1856, 863,035. It includes the islands of Oesel, Möen, &c., lying at the entrance of the gulf. The surface is level or gently undulating. There are a few hills, which rarely exceed 100 feet in height, although the Mesenberg, the highest, has an elevation of 1,200 feet. A considerable proportion of the land is occupied by forests and marshes. The soil on the sea coast is very sandy; in the interior, sand, clay, loam, and moorland alternate; but there are many very fertile tracts. There are 1,120 lakes, the principal of which is Lake Peipus (1,086 sq. m.), united by a narrow channel with Lake Pskov (92 sq. m.) on the S. E., and by the Great Embach with Lake Werzierwe, about 100 sq. m. in extent, in the middle of the province. The principal river is the Düna, which is the boundary toward Courland, and receives from Livonia the Ewest and the Oger; there are more than 300 smaller streams, among which are the Embach, Boulder-Aa, Salis, and Pernau. The climate is cold and raw till the end of May, but very hot in the 3 summer months. Agriculture is the chief industry. The country produces rye, barley, flax, hops, hemp, and linseed. The live stock is generally poor, or what good stock is kept is possessed by the nobles. Bears, wolves, lynxes, and foxes are numerous; and on the islands and sea coast seals are taken, and fish of various kinds are abundant. Potters' clay and limestone are obtained. Coarse woollens and cloths are made, and there are numerous distilleries. The rural population consists of Letts, Livs or Livonians proper, and Esthonians,

while Germans, Swedes, and Russians form the nobility, clergy, and burghers; there are also a few Jews. The great majority of the people are Lutherans. The principal towns are Riga, the capital, Pernau, Wenden, Dorpat, which has a university, and Arensberg in the island of Oesel. Livonia was first made known to western Europe by Bremen merchants about the middle of the 12th century. At the beginning of the 13th the order of knights sword-bearers was founded there, which in connection with the Teutonic order gradually subdued all the territories surrounding the gulf of Riga. The possession of the province was subsequently long disputed by Russians, Poles, and the knights, and finally also by Sweden, to which it was ceded by the treaty of Oliva in 1660. The treaty of Nystadt in 1721 annexed it to Russia.

LIVRE. See FRANC.

LIVY (LIVIUS ANDRONICUS). See ANDRONICUS, LIVIUS.

LIVY (TITUS LIVIUS), a Roman historian, born in Patavium (Padua) in 59 B. C., died A. D. 17. All that is known concerning his life is that he resided during the greater part of it in Rome, that he was married and had at least one son and one daughter, that he enjoyed the patronage and friendship of Augustus, that by his advice the future emperor Claudius was induced in early life to attempt historical composition, that his reputation as an author was so widely extended that a Spaniard went from Cadiz to Rome solely for the purpose of seeing him, and that he returned to his native town some time before his death. Beside his history, which is his great work, he wrote epistles, dialogues, and a treatise on philosophy, not a fragment of which remains. His history of Rome, termed by himself Annales, was in 142 books, and embraced the period from the foundation of the city to the death of Drusus in 9 B. C. Only 35 of these books have been preserved; but we have dry epitomes of the whole, compiled by an unknown author, probably not much later than the volumes which they abridge, which are valuable as furnishing a complete index to the whole period of Roman history, and as being the sole authority for some periods. The original work has been divided into decades, or groups of 10 books each, from the circumstance that the 1st, 21st, and 31st books mark the beginning of important epochs, and are opened with a short introduction. This division was not introduced until after the 6th century. The 1st decade is preserved entire, extending to the final subjugation of the Samnites in 294 B. C. The 2d decade, embracing the period between 294 and 219 B. C., is altogether lost. The 3d decade, comprehending the period of the second Punic war, from 219 to 201 B. C., is entire. The 15 books which form the 4th decade and the first half of the 5th, and comprehend the period from the conclusion of the 2d Punic war to the conquest of Macedonia in 167 B. C., are entire. The remaining books are altogether lost, with the exception of unimportant fragments, and of

a few chapters of the 91st book, concerning the fortunes of Sertorius. The books which are now extant were brought to light at various dates from the revival of learning to the year 1615, the earliest editions having included only 29 books. Many of the fragments have been since discovered, two of the most interesting of them having been first published by Niebuhr (Berlin, 1820). Great exertions were made by Leo X. and by other potentates as late as Louis XIV. to recover the lost decades. Perfect copies were affirmed to exist at Iona in the Hebrides, in Chios, in the monastery of Mt. Athos, and in the seraglio of the Turkish sultan; there is reason to believe that such a prize was destroyed at the siege of Magdeburg, and there is little doubt that a manuscript containing at least the whole of the 5th decade was once in existence at Lausanne. The pursuit, however, always proved a vain one, and has long since been abandoned. The singular beauty of Livy's style, his easy, graceful, and energetic narrative, his skill in giving full relief to the leading features without neglecting minor incidents, and in maintaining a constant interest while relating a long series of dull events, have hardly been questioned. His characterizations and his descriptions are alike animated. His speeches, while they have been admired as models of eloquence, have been criticized as too polished and rhetorical to be suited either to the characters to which they are ascribed or to the audiences to which they are represented as addressed. It does not appear to have been his aim to write a critical history, but rather to give his countrymen a clear and pleasing narrative, and to exalt the fame of the Roman people. He moulded the rude records and fables of the older chronicles into a symmetrical and comewhat poetical form. He never displayed a diligent and painstaking care in consulting authorities and weighing conflicting testimonies. He never ascended to the original sources, tested the records by the monuments of remote antiquity, investigated the antiquities and traditions of the various Italian tribes, or inquired how far the rites and customs of his own time night explain the institutions of the past. He makes mistakes too from lack of a thorough acquaintance with the military art, jurisprudence, political economy, and even geography. These deficiencies, which result in many contradictions and inconsistencies, are not due to want of good faith, but to his indifference to historical thoroughness, and his desire for literary rather than critical elaboration. With the exception of a general tendency to eulogize the heroism of his countrymen and the military glory of Rome, he seems to have written with liberality and impartiality. Quintilian twice mentions a certain "Patavinity" in his style, but scholars have been unable to discover to what he alludes. The best editions are by Drakenborch (7 vols., Leyden, 1738-'46) and Alchefski (Berlin, 1841 et seq.). There are English translations by Philemon Holland (London, 1600

'59), Baker (1797), one published by John Hayes (1744-5), and a literal one forming 4 vols. in Bohn's "Classical Library" (1850).

LIZARD, the common name of several families of saurian reptiles, but properly restricted to the family lacertini, or the autosaurian group of Duméril and Bibron. Many iguanas, geckos, monitors, and skinks have been called lizards; the green anolis and the blue-tailed skink are familiar examples in this country. The lizard may be defined as a scaly reptile, with elongated body, 4 feet armed with 4 or 5 unequal and free toes, long conical tail clothed with scales disposed in parallel rings; head protected by horny plates, flattened and narrow in front; the tympanum membranous and distinct, and the eyes generally with 3 movable lids; the mouth wide, surrounded by large scales above and below; teeth of unequal size and shape, inserted on the internal border of a common groove in the projecting portion of the maxillary bones, and frequently also on the palate; tongue slender, free, fleshy, more or less extensible and forked at the point; the scales without prominent crests, those of the abdomen large; the neck without dewlap, but often with one or two transverse folds covered with tubercles or broad scales which form a kind of collar separated from those of the abdomen by smaller ones; the false ribs do not make a complete circle. The family of lizards may be divided into 2 sub-families, according to the structure and mode of insertion of the teeth; the 1st, according to Duméril and Bibron, is the pleodont, and the other the cœlodont; in the pleodonts the teeth are solid, and firmly fixed by their edges and external surface to the jaws in a hollow of the interior border; in the cœlodonts the teeth have an interior canal, and are slightly attached to the jaws. The pleodonts are further subdivided into the flat-tailed and conical-tailed groups; and the cœlodonts into the smooth-fingered and the serrated-fingered groups, distinguished also by their habits. The 1st group pass most of their lives in the water or inundated places; the 2d avoid wet situations; the 3d frequent woods and gardens, and the last dry and desert localities. Nineteen genera are described, established on the form of the tongue and teeth, the situation of the nostrils, the presence or absence of femoral pores, the form and distribution of the abdominal plates, and the characters of the tympanum and collar; for details the reader is referred to the work above cited. This family is one of the best known among reptiles, as its members are for the most part easily obtained in Europe and America; they vary in length from a few inches to 3 or 4 feet; the colors are often pleasing, but the tints vary much according to sex, age, and season. Lizards are very rapid in their movements for short distances, both on land and in the water; the loss of the tail is frequent from various accidents, but it is very soon replaced; from their scaly covering the sense of touch must be dull; so also are smell and hearing; the moist and