gardens and olive trees. There is another large vacant tract along the S. wall, and W. of the Harem esh-Sherif, also covered with verdure. Near the centre of the city also appear two or three green spots which are small gardens. The earch of the Holy Sepulchre is the only conspicacas edifice in this vicinity, and its domes are griking objects. There are no other buildings which either from their size or beauty are likely to engage the attention. Eight or ten minarets mark the position of as many mosques in different parts of the town, but they are only noticed because of their elevation above the surrounding edifices. For the same reason the eye rests for a moment upon a great number of low domes, which form the roofs of the principal dwellings, and relieve the heavy uniformity of the flat plastered roofs which cover the greater mass of more humble habitations. The Harem esh-Sherif, the "Noble Sanctuary," forms the most conspicuous feature of the city, and is one of the most sacred temples of the Mohammedan world. It is a quadrangle 1,489 feet long by 954 broad. It contains two mosques, the oldest of which, El Aksa, was originally a Christian church built by the emperor Justinian about the middle of the 6th century, and is 272 feet long by 184 wide. The other mosque, Kubbet es-Sukhrah, or the "Dome of the Rock," stands on the very summit of Mt. Moriah, and is built over a singular projecting rock, which is supposed to be the "threshing floor of Araunah the Jebusite," where David sacrificed, and afterward the site of the great altar of burnt offering in Solomon's temple. By the Mohammedans it is regarded with the highest veneration, their traditions saying that Mohammed called it one of the rocks of paradise, and they believe that from it he made the ascent into heaven narrated in the Koran. The building is an octagon, each side of which measures 67 feet. It is surmounted by a peculiarly light and gracefal dome terminated by a tall gilt crescent. The entire building forms one of the finest and most celebrated specimens of the Saracenic style of architecture. Its erection is commonly ascribed to the caliph Omar about 650, but some of the Arab historians state that it was built by the caliph Abd el Malek in 686. An eminent English writer on architecture, Mr. Fergusson, maintains that it was built by the Roman emperor Constantine in the earlier part of the 4th century over the sepulchre of Christ. This opinion, however, finds few supporters. The people of Jerusalem itself, and the majority of those who have written on the topography of Jerusalem, believe that the sepulchre is in the middle of the N. W. quarter of the city. The church of the Holy Sepulchre, built by Constantine or his mother Helena, is 300 feet long and nearly 200 feet broad, and is supposed to incinde within these limits the scene of the crucifixion, entombment, and resurrection of Christ. The general plan of the church is a rotunda divided and elongated; that is, the sides of the church are parallel, and the ends semi-circles; the

eastern semi-circle is smaller than the western. The main entrance is in the S. side of the church. On entering, the pilgrim finds immediately at his right hand a chamber, the roof of which is the floor of a chapel. This chamber has on the right and left the tombs of Godfrey and Baldwin, between which the pilgrim passes to the chapel of Adam, a small room ending against the native rock. In this rock is visible a huge fissure, said to have been made by the earthquake at the time of the crucifixion. This rock, ascending through the roof of the chamber, is the supposed site of Calvary. Outside the room, two staircases lead up to the floor of the chapel above it, which is the chapel of Calvary or of the Elevation of the Cross; within this the pilgrim is permitted to approach, on his knees, a hole in the rock usually covered with a silver plate, in which he is told the cross of Christ was set. In front of the great doorway, and within the church, is a large smooth slab of the native stone of the floor of the church, which is called the stone of unction, and is pointed out as the spot where the body of Christ was laid by Joseph to be anointed for burial. This lies between Calvary and the tomb; passing it, the pilgrim enters the great semi-rotunda in the W. end of the church, in the centre of which, under an open unglazed dome, is the holy sepulchre. This is enclosed in a beautiful chapel of variouscolored marbles. The first room is the chapel of the Angel; from this the pilgrim enters, by a low passage, a sepulchral chamber 6 feet 2 inches long by 6 feet wide, having an arched roof about 7 feet high; one half of this is occupied by a stone couch, covered with a marble slab. This entire tomb is said to be carved in solid rock, and it is claimed for it that this is the identical tomb in which the body of Christ lay, on the couch now hidden from view by the slab; others deny that the tomb is solid rock, and affirm that it is all a constructed building. In the chapel of the Angel is shown a fragment of stone said to be part of the stone rolled away by the angels. Another and larger fragment is claimed and exhibited by the Armenians in a chapel on Mt. Zion. In galleries around the church, and in small buildings attached to it on the outside, are apartments occupied by a number of monks of various nations, who are devoted to the service of the sepulchre, and in Passion week perform there a variety of ceremonies which annually attract a large crowd of pilgrims. Concerning the authenticity of these sacred places a great deal of controversy has existed and is still kept up. Dr. Robinson, in his "Biblical Researches," arrives at the conclusion "that the genuineness of the present site of the holy sepulchre is supported neither by well authenticated historical facts, nor by prior tradition, nor by archæological features." His main argument to this effect attempts to show by the topography of Jerusalem that the present locality of the sepulchre was within the walls of the city at the time of the crucifixion, and consequently could not be near

the walls demolished. They were rebuilt in 43 by Antipater, under whose son Herod the Great the city was enlarged and adorned with magnificent structures, the temple being rebuilt on a much more splendid and extensive scale than that of Solomon. Jerusalem at this time seems to have reached the summit of its greatness, and, it is conjectured, may have contained 200,000 inhabitants in its lofty and closely compacted dwellings. This period is marked by the most memorable events in its history, the birth, ministry, and crucifixion of Christ. About 40 years after this latter event the tyranny of the Romans drove the Jews to revolt, and in A. D. 66 Jerusalem was taken by the insurgents, and a Roman army commanded by Cestius Gallus, governor of Syria, was routed in a battle before its walls. Titus, the son of the emperor Vespasian, regained it in 70, after one of the most terrible sieges recorded in history. The temple was burned and the city razed to the ground, the Romans leaving only 3 towers and a part of the wall to show how strong a place their arms had overthrown. In 131 the emperor Hadrian ordered the city to be rebuilt. The Jews, apprehending that pagan idols would be set up in their holy places, broke into rebellion and took Jerusalem, which the Romans regained only after a protracted and sanguinary contest. They then finished the rebuilding of the city, and, calling it Ælia Capitolina, made it a Roman colony, and forbade the Jews to approach it on pain of death. It continued to be known by its new name till the time of Constantine, whose mother Helena made a pilgrimage to it in 326. The emperor Julian repealed the edicts which forbade the Jews to enter Jerusalem, and permitted them in 362 to begin to rebuild the temple; but his death soon after put an end to the project, and the edicts against the Jews were renewed, except that once a year they were allowed to enter the city to wail over the desolation of their temple and their holy city. In 451 Jerusalem was made the seat of a patriarch. Justinian, who became emperor in 527, repaired and enriched its churches, founded many convents, and built a church dedicated to the Virgin on Mt. Moriah. The city had now become a place of great resort for pilgrims from all parts of Christendom. In 610 it was stormed and greatly damaged by the Persians, and in 637 it was taken by the Mohammedans under Caliph Omar. It remained in possession of the Arabs till 1073, when it was taken by the Seljookian Turks, whose cruel treatment of the Christian pilgrims created great excitement in Europe, and led to the first crusade for the recovery of the holy sepulchre from the infidels. Shortly before the crusaders under Godfrey reached the city, the Seljooks had been driven out by the Arab sultans of Egypt. The crusaders took the city by storm, July 15, 1099, and made it the seat of a Christian kingdom, which lasted till 1187, when it was conquered by the Egyptian sultan Saladin. In 1229 it was restored to the Christians by a treaty made between the

Mohammedans and the German emperor Frederic II. In 1239 it was again taken by the Mohammedans, who in 1243 again restored it to the Christians. In 1244, however, it was stormed by the Khorasmians, and has ever since been held by Mohammedan, masters. For several centuries it declined in importance under the sway of the Mameluke sultans of Egypt, and in 1526 passed with Egypt and Syria into the hands of the Ottoman Turks. From that period till the present time it has remained a part of the Turkish empire, and has been subject to few vicissitudes. In 1832 it submitted to the army of Mehemet Ali, the pasha of Egypt, but was restored to the sultan in 1841. -Almost our only sources of knowledge of ancient Jerusalem are the Bible and the works of Josephus. The Greek and Latin writers scarcely do more than mention the city. Modern Jerusalem has been described by Maundrell, Clarke. Châteaubriand, Richardson, Niebuhr, Wilde, Lamartine, Buckingham, Poujoulat, Olin, Prime, &c. See also Bartlett's "Walks about the City and Environs of Jerusalem" (8vo., London, 1844), Williams's "Holy City" (Svo., London, 1845), and Robinson's "Biblical Researches" (3 vols. 8vo., Boston, 1856).

JERUSALEM, JOHANN FRIEDRICH WILHELM, a German theologian, born in Osnabrück, Nov. 22, 1709, died Sept. 2, 1789. He was appointed in 1740 preacher to Duke Charles of Brunswick, and in 1742 became tutor of the hereditary prince. In 1752 he was placed in charge of a theological seminary established by the Protestants in the former convent of Ridagshausen. He declined the appointment of chancellor of the university of Göttingen, and became in 1771 vice-president of the consistory at Wolfenbüttel. He still bears the reputation of having been one of the best preachers of Germany. He was the father of the unfortunate Karl Wilhelm Jerusalem, whose suicide suggested to Goethe the catastrophe of the "Sorrows of Werther."

JERVIS, SIR JOHN, earl of St.Vincent, a British admiral, born in Meaford, Staffordshire, Jan. 9, 1734, died March 15,1823. He entered the navy at the age of 10 years, and became post-captain of the Gosport of 40 guns in 1760, and in 1774 of the Foudroyant. He distinguished himself in several naval engagements, was made C. B. in 1782, and during the same year sailed with Lord Howe to the relief of Gibraltar. He was promoted to the rank of rear admiral in 1787, and was in parliament from 1782 until the beginning of the French revolution, when he sailed to the West Indies and captured Martinique and Guadeloupe. He was appointed admiral of the blue, June 1, 1795, and on Feb. 14, 1797, off Cape St. Vincent, defeated a Spanish fleet which was nearly twice as strong as his own. For this he was raised to the peerage by the title of earl of St. Vincent and Baron Jervis of Meaford, receiving a pension of £3,000. He became first lord of the admiralty in Feb. 1801, but was removed from office by Pitt in May, 1804. He took command of the channel fleet in 1806, holding it

however only for one year. In 1810 he appeared for the last time in parliament, when he spoke strongly in censure of the conduct of the war. JESI, SAMUELE, an Italian engraver, born in Milan about 1789, died in Florence, Jan. 17, 1853. He was a pupil of Longhi, and first brought himself into notice by engravings of St. John and St. Stephen from Fra Bartolomeo's pictures in the cathedral at Lucca. Subsequently he devoted himself chiefly to the works of Raphael, of whom he is considered one of the most sympathetic copyists. His chefs d'œuvre are the portraits of Leo X. and Cardinals Rossi and Giulio de' Medici, from the original in the Pitti palace, which is said to have occupied him 5 years. His engraving of Raphael's "Virgin with the Vine" is one of the choicest productions of the graver in modern times. During his later years he gave much attention to the process of engraving in chalk, for instruction in which he formed a school.

JESSAMINE, a central co. of Ky., bounded S. by Kentucky river; area, 160 sq. m.; pop. in 1850, 10,249, of whom 3,825 were slaves. It has a somewhat diversified surface, with a soil of more than ordinary richness. The productions in 1850 were 725,891 bushels of Indian corn, 134,750 of oats, 1,563 tons of hemp, 4,800 lbs. of tobacco, and 37,153 of wool. There were 11 grist mills, 17 saw mills, 16 churches, and 601 pupils attending public schools. The Lexington and Covington railroad passes through the county. Capital, Nicholasville.

JESTER. See FooL.

JESUITS, OF THE SOCIETY OF JESUS (Societas Jesu), the most celebrated and influential among the religious orders of the Roman Catholic church, founded by St. Ignatius Loyola. When studying at the university of Paris, Ignatius united himself (1534) with Le Fèvre (Faber), Francis Xavier, Laynez, and 6 other young men, to make a pilgrimage to Palestine, and to labor there for the conversion of the Saracens. Thwarted in this design by a war between the emperor Charles V. and the Turks, Ignatius, Laynez, and Faber went to Rome, threw themselves at the feet of the pope, and asked him to employ them for some other good work. In 1539 Ignatius convoked all his associates, who were scattered in various parts of Italy, and laid before them the plan of a new order, whose members, beside taking upon themselves the three usual vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, also bound themselves by a fourth vow to go without hesitation wherever the pope might send them in order to labor for the salvation of souls. On Sept. 27, 1540, the order was confirmed by Pope Paul III. The membership was at first limited to 60, which provision was, however, repealed in 1543. Ig. natius was elected the first general, and took up his abode in 1541 at Rome, where he died in 1556. In 1545 the order received great privileges,, and in 1571 all the rights of the mendicant orders.-The constitution of the Jesuits differs in many points from that of the other re

ligious orders. The principal share in framing it has been attributed by some to Laynez. It was originally written in Spanish, but soon translated into Latin, and published for the first time in 1558. A very strict examination precedes the reception of new members, and 5 points are designated as absolute impediments to admission, viz.: the commission of murder, apostasy, or other grievous offences, subjection to a degrading sentence, membership in a monastic order, marriage, and insanity or decided weakness of intellect. The novitiate lasts two years, during which the novices are not allowed to study, but devote their entire time to prayer and prolonged meditation. The "Spiritual Exercises," composed by Ignatius in 1522, are their principal guide. Their fitness is tried by many severe tests. After the expiration of the two years the novice may offer himself for reception into the society, takes the vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, and is admitted among the scholastics. In this second stage of his religious life he generally devotes 15 or 17 years to study and teaching in the colleges of the order, first studying belles lettres, rhetoric, philosophy, the physical and mathematical sciences, then teaching in succession various branches, beginning with the lowest class, and at last pursuing for 4 or 6 years the study of theology and the oriental languages. The course of these studies was regulated by the Ratio Studiorum, first published in 1586, revised in 1599, and again in 1832 (Ratio atque Institutio Studiorum Societatis Jesu, Rome, 1832). After the completion of his studies, the candidate performs a second novitiate, lasting one year, during which he lives in retirement, in order to receive the last preparation in "the school of the heart" (in schola affectus). Only occasional light duties of the ministry interrupt his solitude. He has to make himself thoroughly acquainted with the constitution of his order, and a detailed report on his progress in virtue and science is made by his superior to the general of the order, who in accordance with this report admits him to the rank of either coadjutor spiritualis or professus. The coadjutors have, on the whole, the same rights as the professi, but cannot take part in the provincial and general congregations of the order, and cannot be elected to a higher office than the rectorate of a college. The professed members, in whose hands the supreme government of the order lies, take upon themselves the fourth vow, to go as missionaries wherever the pope may send them. Beside the above classes of members, there are also lay coadjutors, who are received for domestic employments. At the head of the order is a general, who has a more absolute power than the generals of other religious orders. He is elected for life, appoints nearly all the officers of the order, and receives monthly reports from the provincials, and quarterly reports from the superiors of the professed houses, the rectors of the colleges, and the masters of the novices. Every third year the catalogues of every province, with detailed reports on the capacity and

conduct of every member, must be sent to him. The order is divided into provinces. A province is governed by a provincial, a professed house by a præpositus, a college by a rector, a residence by a superior. A provincial congregation consists of all the professed members and such coadjutors as are rectors of colleges. A general congregation meets only for the election of a new general or for deliberating on subjects of very great importance, such as the dissolution or transfer of houses or colleges. It consists of all the provincials and two delegates from every provincial congregation. The general congregation which elects a new general elects also a monitor, whose duty it is to observe the conduct and actions of the general, and, if necessary, to admonish him, and a certain number of assistants (originally 4 for Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Germany, afterward 5, one being added for France, and still the same, one being now appointed for Great Britain and her colonies and the United States, and none for Portugal), whose advice the general is bound to seek. The Jesuits wear no monastic habit, but dress in black, nearly like secular priests. Two popes (Paul IV. and Pius V.) and one general (Francis Borgia) wished to assimilate the Jesuits in some points more to the other religious orders, in particular by introducing the observance of the canonical hours; but this was soon given up, and the whole energy of the order directed to laboring in behalf of the church by means of education and missions.The order spread with unparalleled rapidity, so that it was said to have had no period of youth. At the death of Ignatius there were 1,000 members in 12 provinces; soon after the death of Acquaviva, in 1618, 13,000 members in 32 provinces; in 1749, 24 professed houses, 669 colleges, 176 seminaries, 61 novitiates, 335 residences, 273 missions in Protestant and pagan countries, and about 22,600 members. In Portugal it was introduced as early as 1540 by St. Francis Xavier and Rodriguez, who found a zealous patron in King John III. Rodriguez established a college at Coimbra, which in 1544 counted 60 members. A considerable number of young noblemen prayed for admission, and thus the order soon became influential. In Spain the Jesuits had at first to overcome the opposition of several bishops, but the patronage of Francis Borgia, at that time governor of Barcelona, soon procured for them a favorable reception and a number of houses and colleges, and at the university of Salamanca they received some of the theological chairs. In France, where they likewise appeared as early as 1540, they met with a very decided resistance on the part of the parliament, the university of Paris, and many bishops. They could not secure a legal existence until 1562, when they were recognized as "fathers of the college of Clermont." The parliament at first refused to register the royal patent, but had at length to yield to the order of the king. They were unable, however, to overcome the

opposition of the parliament and the Sorbonne. When Châtel, who had studied in one of their colleges, made an attempt against the life of Henry IV., they were expelled from France by a decree of the parliament in 1594, and Father Guignard, who was accused of having approved the attempt of assassination, was put to death. Henry IV. himself recalled them in 1603, and from that year they remained in the undisturbed possession of their property. They enjoyed the confidence of Louis XIII., Cardinal Richelieu, and Louis XIV., and were the principal combatants against the doctrines of the Jansenists. Their colleges were very numerous, and among their pupils were Descartes, Bossuet, Corneille, and Voltaire. Two Jesuits were sent to Ireland as papal nuncios under the reign of Henry VIII. Elizabeth expelled them from her dominions, and forbade them, upon penalty of death, to return. We find them, nevertheless, again as missionaries under the reign of James I., and after the discovery of the gunpowder plot (1605) Father Garnet, to whom the plot had been communicated in the confessional, was put to death. (See the proceedings of this trial in vol. ii. of "Criminal Trials," published by the society for the diffusion of useful knowledge.) In 1678 Titus Oates charged them with having entered into a conspiracy against Charles II. and the state, in consequence of which 6 Jesuits were put to death. In spite of several decrees against the public exercise of the Roman Catholic religion in England in general and the residence of Jesuits in particular, the society maintained itself there, although it never became very numerous. The Jesuits first appeared in Germany in pursuance of a call of Ferdinand I. of Austria (1551). They received chairs at the Bavarian university of Ingolstadt and colleges at Cologne (1556), Munich (1559), Treves (1561), Augsburg (1563), and several other places. In Italy they spread more rapidly and more extensively than in any other country. They were banished from Venice, however, in 1604, and the popes did not succeed until 1656 in causing their restoration. A war between France and Charles V., during which all Spaniards were ordered to leave France, brought some Jesuits to the Netherlands, soon after the foundation of the order. They gained a firm footing under Philip II., although the bishops showed them less favor than in other countries. In Transylvania they were favored by Prince Christopher Báthori and his son and successor Sigismund, but the assembly of the states compelled the latter prince (Dec. 16, 1588) to sign a decree of banishment. They became very numerous in Poland, which they divided before the end of the 16th century into two provinces, and where they had houses and colleges in 20 towns. In Sweden they made great efforts, under John III. and Sigismund, to restore the sway of the Roman Catholic church, but the dethronement of Sigismund in 1602 destroyed their hopes. In Russia favorable prospects seemed to open for them with the