capacity won him the friendship of the Roman commander and officers, many of whom are said to have secretly stimulated him to aspire to the sole sovereignty of Numidia on the demise of his uncle. On the conclusion of the war he returned to Numidia, and was received with ceremonious respect by Micipsa, who, to purchase his forbearance, made him at his death heir to the kingdom in common with his two sons. But the three princes quarrelled on their first meeting after his death, and a little later Hiempsal was assassinated by Jugurtha. Adherbal and his party took up arms, but were defeated, when he fled for refuge to Rome, and submitted his case to the senate, who, despite the intrigues and bribes of Jugurtha, sent commissioners to Africa to divide Numidia between the rivals. The commissioners took gifts from Jugurtha, and gave him the larger and better half of the kingdom. He was not however satisfied. After trying in vain to provoke Adherbal to declare war, he threw off the mask, invaded that prince's territory, and compelled him to take refuge in Cirta, where, on the surrender of that city in 112 B. C., himself and all his followers were massacred. The conduct of Jugurtha now excited loud indignation at Rome, and an army was despatched to Africa to depose him. But the Roman commander and legate suffered Jugurtha to purchase peace on terms which involved no greater sacrifice, on his part, than 30 elephants and an inconsiderable sum of money. This shameful transaction so weakened the confidence of the Roman people in the patricians, that the prætor Cassius was sent to Numidia to guaranty to Jugurtha a safe-conduct if he would go to Rome and give evidence against the generals. The king consented, proceeded to the imperial city, and appeared in the comitia; but a tribune in the interest of the generals forbade him to testify, and the attempt to convict the corrupt officers proved a failure. Jugurtha remained at Rome for some time, intriguing and adding to his influence among the aristocracy. Having however procured the assassination of Massiva, a Numidian prince, who since the death of Adherbal had been a competitor for that kingdom, he was ordered to quit Italy. It was while leaving Rome, on this occasion, that he uttered the memorable exclamation, which indicates how the Romans had fallen from their ancient integrity: "Behold a city for sale, could she but find a purchaser." The war was now renewed against Jugurtha, and Spurius Albinus was appointed to conduct it, during whose command a division of the army was surprised by Jugurtha in its camp, the greater part cut to pieces, and the survivors compelled to pass under the yoke. This disgrace stirred up the Roman spirit, a new army was raised, and Q. Cæcilius Metellus was sent to succeed Albinus. Metellus was at once an able general and an honest man. After the first campaign Jugurtha was willing to purchase peace on any conditions short of surrendering himself a prisoner of war. Metellus, however, was ambitious not only of

terminating the war, but of adorning his triumph with the vanquished, and the contest was renewed. Nothing memorable was achieved during the remainder of Metellus's term. The Numidian, avoiding a general engagement, resorted to guerilla tactics; while the Roman, on hearing that the plebeian Marius was to supersede him in the command, discontinued offensive operations, determined that no act of his should tend to lessen the difficulties which lay in the way of his successor. Marius arrived in Africa in 107 B. C., speedily reduced almost all the strongholds that had been in the possession of the king at the time of his arrival, and gradually subjected his territory to the dominion of Rome. Jugurtha, seeing his kingdom slipping from his grasp, made one final effort to retrieve his fortunes. Having formed an alliance with Bocchus, king of Mauritania, the two monarchs with their united forces attacked the army of Marius on its march, but after a desperate contest they were totally defeated. The Mauritanian king now deserted his ally, and enticed him into an ambuscade, where he was made prisoner, and delivered in chains to Sylla, the quæstor of Marius. He was afterward taken to Rome, and, after adorning the triumph of his conqueror (Jan. 1, 104), was cast into prison, where he died of starvation at the end of 6 days. The details of the life of Jugurtha are chiefly known from the interesting history of the "Jugurthine War" by Sallust.

JULIAN (FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS JULIANUS), surnamed the Apostate, a Roman emperor (A. D. 361-363), born in Constantinople, Nov. 17, 331, died in Persia, June 26, 363. He was the son of Julius Constantius, the grandson of Constantius Chlorus, and the nephew of Constantine the Great. When the tyrant Constantius II. ordered the male descendants of Chlorus by his second wife Theodora to be put to death, he made an exception in favor of Julian and his half brother Gallus, whose tender years did not excite his apprehension. But, though he spared their lives, he banished them to certain cities of Ionia and Bithynia, and ultimately confined them in the strong castle of Macellum near the Cappadocian Cæsarea. During the period of their restraint Julian was not only instructed in the doctrines of the Christian faith, but taught to fast, to pray, and to fill the office of reader in the church of Nicomedia. In 351 Gallus was taken from prison, invested with the dignity of Cæsar, and made prefect of the East. Through his mediation Julian was liberated, and permitted to fix his residence in any of the Asiatic cities. He now first became acquainted with those Platonic philosophers who ere long induced him to abandon Christianity for paganism. He was not however ambitious of persecution, and did not make a public avowal of his apostasy till he could do so with perfect safety. After the murder of Gallus, he again became an object of distrust to Constantius, who had him transported to Italy, and imprisoned at Milan, whence having been liber

ated by the intercession of the empress Eusebia, he retired to Athens. Constantius soon recalled him, and on Nov. 6, 355, proclaimed him Cæsar, and gave him his sister Helena in marriage. He was at the same time invested with the government of all the transalpine provinces, and with the command of the forces which were to drive the German invaders of Gaul beyond the Rhine. Having with equal skill and energy effected this latter undertaking, and checked the rapacity of the local governors, he acquired such popularity that when the jealous Constantius in 360 commanded him to send his best soldiers to the Persian war, the troops proclaimed him emperor. Julian crossed over into Germany and made an admirable march along the forest-covered valley of the Danube with the intention of advancing against Constantinople; but the sudden death of Constantius in Cilicia gave him undisputed possession of the empire. On Dec. 11, 361, he made his triumphal entry into the capital, amid the acclamations of the soldiers, the citizens, and the senate. He now openly avowed his abandonment of Christianity, which had long before been known to his friends, and his Christian subjects apprehended a cruel and relentless persecution. Shortly after his accession, however, he published an edict which granted perfect toleration to all sects and religions. But the spirit of this edict was not respected even by Julian himself. He excluded Christians from civil and military offices, forbade them to teach grammar and rhetoric in the schools, compelled them to contribute to the building and repair of pagan temples, permitting at the same time the Jews to rebuild their temple at Jerusalem, and wrote a voluminous treatise against the assumed errors of Christianity. Amid the licentious priests and lascivious dancers who thronged the pagan temple, he was frequently seen bearing the wood, kindling the fire, slaughtering the victim, and divining from the entrails of the expiring animal. He was nevertheless worthy in other respects to wield the sceptre. Immediately after his accession he applied himself to reform the luxury and extravagance of the imperial court. He ordered the laws to be equitably administered, and instituted a tribunal for the trial of such officials as had been guilty of peculation or oppression in the former reign. The incursions of the Persians upon Roman territory led him to declare war against that people, and in 363, having crossed the Euphrates at Hierapolis, he advanced with the main body of his army against the royal city of Ctesiphon. Under the walls of this place he gained a brilliant victory over a division of the enemy; but having been induced by the representations of a Persian noble, who affected to be a fugitive, to postpone the siege of Ctesiphon, and to march into the desert in search of Sapor, the Persian monarch, he was surprised by the enemy, and in the battle which ensued received a wound from an arrow which proved mortal in the evening of the same day. Jovian was proclaimed his successor on the

battle field. In his manner of life Julian emulated the temperance and simplicity of the primitive Romans; he was indefatigable in the discharge of his public duties, and in his intervals of leisure was devoted to study and philosophy. He possessed rhetorical and literary talents of a high order, and wrote much and well on various subjects. The ablest if not the most important of his extant works are: the "Cæsars," or the "Banquet,' a satirical composition in which the different Roman emperors are made to appear at a celestial banquet where old Silenus censures their vices and crimes; and the "Misopogon," or the "Beard-Hater," in which the emperor exposes the licentiousness and effeminacy of the citizens of Antioch, who had ridiculed the beard of their sovereign, such appendages not being fashionable in that city. His treatise against the Christians has been lost, with the exception of those extracts preserved in the refutation of it by Cyril of Alexandria. The best collective edition of the works of Julian is that of Spanheim (Leipsic, 1696). The most celebrated modern lives of Julian are by Gibbon in his "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" by the abbé de la Bletterie, Histoire de l'empereur Julien l'apostat (Paris, 1735); and by Neander, Ueber den Kaiser Julianus und sein Zeitalter (Leipsic, 1812).

JULICH, a circle of the Prussian province of Aix la Chapelle (pop. 50,000), with a capital of the same name (pop. 4,000), situated on the river Roer, 26 m. from Cologne. The town is the Juliacum mentioned in the "Itinerary" of Antoninus. One of the imperial counts of Jülich, Girard I., assisted Henry the Fowler in his warfare against the Hungarians, and the county of Jülich was raised to the rank of a duchy in favor of Girard's descendants by the emperor Charles IV. (1356). For a long time afterward Jülich was one of the independent duchies on the Rhine, until the beginning of the 17th century, when the line of hereditary dukes became extinct. At the congress of Vienna in 1814 the duchy was allotted to Prussia, with the exception of a few localities annexed to the Dutch province of Limburg. The razing of the fortress of Jülich was begun in 1860.

JULIEN, STANISLAS AIGNAN, a French orientalist and sinologue, born in Orleans, Sept. 20, 1799. He was the son of a noted mechanician. After completing his classical studies in his native town, he repaired to Paris, and, while making himself acquainted with several living European languages, perfected his knowledge of the ancient Greek by attending the lectures of Gail at the college of France. He was on the point of emigrating to Camden, S. C., where one of his elder brothers was established as a manufacturer of fire-arms, when news of his brother's death arrived and detained him in France. Gail appointed him his substitute in 1821; and to vindicate his claims to this distinction, he pubblished in 1823 a critical edition of the poem of Coluthus, 'Elevns 'Apnayn, with translations in Latin, French, Italian, Spanish, English, and

German. In 1824, under the title of La lyre patriotique de la Grèce, he produced a French translation of the lyrical poems of the modern Greek poet Kalvos of Zante. A young Scotchman inspired him with a taste for the Chinese language, and introduced him to Sir William Drummond, who supplied him with the means of studying that language. He also attended the lectures of Abel Rémusat, and mastered the Chinese with such uncommon rapidity that within a year he was enabled to translate into Latin the writings of Mencius (Meng-tseu). This work was published at the expense of the Asiatic society of Paris. Since then he has accomplished much toward making Chinese literature known in Europe. Among his numerous translations are two dramas: Hoei-lan-ki, ou l'histoire du cercle de craie (8vo., London, 1832); and Tchao-chi-kou-eul, ou l'orphelin de la Chine (Paris, 1834); a novel, Pe-che-tsing-ki, Blanche et Bleue, ou les deux couleuvres-fees (Paris, 1834), and several other tales which appeared in the 5th volume of the Salmigondis, or in the Constitutionnel; two philosophical works of great fame, Kan-ing-pien, le livre des récompenses et des peines (London, 1835), and Lao-tseu Tao-teking, le litre de la voie et de la vertu (Paris, 1841); two interesting treatises, Résumé des principaux traités Chinois sur la culture des muriers et l'éducation des vers à soie (1837), and Histoire et fabrication de la porcelaine Chinoise (1856). His most important work appeared under the general title of Voyages des pèlerins Boudhistes, three volumes of which have been already published (1853–’7-'8), containing Histoire de la vie de Hiouen-thsang et de ses voyages dans l'Inde, and Mémoires sur les contrées occidentales. This work throws much light on the early history and geography of India; a portion of the publishing expenses was defrayed by the English East India company. He has beside in MS. or in preparation several other works, among which is a complete Chinese dictionary. In 1832 M. Julien succeeded Abel Rémusat as professor of the Chinese language and literature; he was elected in 1833 to the academy of inscriptions, intrusted in 1845 with the keeping of the Chinese department in the royal (now imperial) library, and promoted in 1855 to the rank of administrator of the college of France; he is an associate of nearly all the learned societies of Europe, corresponds with several mandarins, and is said to enjoy a high reputation in the literary world of China.

JULIUS, the name of 3 popes. I. SAINT, born in Rome, died there, April 12, 352. He was chosen pope, Feb. 6, 337. He sustained Athanasius in his contest with the Arians and sumtoned a council in 342 to take action in the matter. Another council was held at Sardica in 344, at which it is asserted that the right of arbitration in cases of deposition of bishops was reserved to the see of Rome. Two letters of Jolins are given in the Epistola Romanorum Pontificum. II. Giulio della ROVERE, born in Albisola in 1441, died Feb. 21, 1513. He was

bishop successively of Carpentras, Albano, Ostia, Bologna, Avignon, and Mende, and was made cardinal by his uncle Sixtus IV., who also gave him command of the papal troops sent against the revolted Umbrians. His success in this war so increased his popularity, that Alexander VI. on assuming the tiara banished him from Rome. Julius returned to the camp, and contributed an important part in the conquest of Naples by Charles VIII., the rising of the Genoese, and the expulsion of Luigi Sforza. On the death of Alexander, Aug. 18, 1503, he caused the election of the aged Pius III., who survived his elevation only 26 days, and Julius himself was then chosen on the first ballot. His first care on coming to the throne was to drive out Casar Borgia from the Papal States, his next to strengthen and extend the power of the holy see. The refractory nobility at home were soon reduced to obedience, but the Venetians, who held Ravenna, Rimini, and other territories of the church, were a more formidable enemy. After fruitless negotiations, Julius joined in 1509 the famous league of Cambrai, formed by the emperor Maximilian, Louis XII. of France, and Ferdinand of Aragon, for the dismemberment of the Venetian republic. The troops of the league were everywhere successful; the doge sued for peace, and the pope, who had now got what he wanted, grew jealous of Louis, and willingly united with the Venetians to expel the French from Italy. Ferdinand was also led to view the success of Louis with uneasiness, and became a party to the "holy league," which was signed Oct. 4, 1511, and whereof Henry VIII. of England afterward became a member. Julius took the field in person, and, after several campaigns of varying success, drove out the "barbarians," as he termed his former allies. He could not so easily rid himself of the Swiss, German, and Spanish troops by whom he had effected this result, and in the midst of the disorder raised by his warlike and ambitious policy, he died without achieving for the holy see that preeminence which had been the whole aim of his pontificate. Julius was in heart and action a thorough soldier. He "made his tiara a helmet and his crosier a sword," and his disposition is well expressed in an old epigram:

Cum Petri nihil efficiant ad prælia claves,
Auxilio Pauli forsitan ensis erit.

He was nevertheless regarded by the Italians as a friend to the liberation of their country, and the justice and wisdom of his internal administration gained him their affection. He laid the corner stone of St. Peter's church, and was a patron of Michel Angelo, Bramante, and Raphael. It was Julius II. who granted Henry VIII. a dispensation to marry Catharine_of Aragon. He was succeeded by Leo X. III. GIAN MARIA DEL MONTE, born in Arezzo, Sept. 10, 1487, died March 23, 1555. He belonged to a noble family, held several high offices under the papal government, was made cardinal in 1536, and succeeded Paul III. in 1550. He reopened the sittings of the council of Trent,

was named by Charlemagne Brachmonat (fallow month).

JUNG BAHADOOR COOMARANAGEE, prime minister of Nepaul, born about 1816. He is the 2d son of a general who commanded part of the rajah's army on the N. W. frontier. While serving as a subaltern under his father he manifested a daring and adventurous spirit, which, if it frequently led him into breaches of military discipline, gained to an extraordinary degree the affection of the soldiers. He visited the British possessions in upper India, and on his return, instead of being punished for absence from his post without leave, was promoted to the rank of captain. In 1839, his uncle Mahtabar Singh having been made prime minister, he went to court, where he became implicated in a conspiracy against the British, and marched with a secret expedition to Benares; but his plans being discovered, he was made prisoner and carried back to Nepaul. Released on the frontier, he divided his attention for a while between gambling and politics, for both of which he showed a remarkable aptitude. In 1845 the ranee (queen) resolved upon the destruction of Jung's uncle, the prime minister, and chose the nephew as her agent. Mahtabar Singh was treacherously shot by Jung, and the assassin received for reward the chief command of the forces with a place in the new ministry. In the course of the following year, acting in concert with the ranee, who had almost absolute control over her imbecile husband, he became premier by a coup d'état, shooting down 14 nobles with his own hand in the audience hall of the palace. He soon lost the favor of the ranee, and, having foiled an attempt upon his life, caused her to be banished. This was followed by the deposition of the king and the elevation of the heir apparent to the throne. Jung, however, retains the whole power of the state, and is the virtual sovereign. His administration has proved advantageous to the country, and has been marked by improvement in its laws and the development of its resources. He is feared and hated by the king and the nobles, but is a favorite with the army and the people. In 1850 he visited England in the quality of ambassador, the ostensible purpose of his mission being to negotiate respecting a disputed tract of territory on the British and Nepaulese frontiers. He landed at Southampton May 25, attended by a splendid retinue and bearing costly presents to Queen Victoria; and after a stay of a few months, during which he was the object of many attentions and intense public curiosity, he returned home, stopping a while in Paris, and arriving at Bombay in November. Soon afterward he caused his daughter to be married to the Nepaulese heir apparent. He cultivated the friendship of the English, affected English modes of life, and when the revolt broke out in 1857 offered his services in suppressing it. He took the field with 9,000 Gorkhas, assisted in the capture of Lucknow, and in the summer of 1858 returned to Cat mandoo, having received from Queen Victoria

the grand cross of the order of the bath. He afterward opened a fresh campaign against the remnant of the rebels on the Nepaulese frontier, crushed and dispersed them in Dec. 1859 in decisive battle, and thus brought the war definitively to a close.

JUNG-STILLING (JOHANN HEINRICH JUNG), a German mystic author, born in Im-Grund, Nassau, Dec. 12, 1740, died in Carlsruhe, April 2, 1817. After being successively a charcoal burner, tailor, and teacher, he began to study medicine at Strasbourg, where he became ac quainted with Goethe, who in his autobiography has given a fine analysis of his naïve, trustful, and affectionate character. He operated for cataract with eminent success at Elberfeld, was professor of rural economy at Lautern (1778), Marburg (1787), and Heidelberg (1803), and at his death was a privy councillor of Baden. The best known of his writings is an autobiography, Stilling's Jugend, Jünglingsjahre, WanderSchaft, Lehrjahre,häusliches Leben und Alter (published in three parts, 1787, 1789, and 1817), a curious work, containing many profound thoughts, and marked by an eccentric religious and moral enthusiasm. He wrote several allegorical and mystical tales, as the Geschichte des Herrn von Morgenthau (1779), Geschichte Florentins von Fahlendorn (1781), Leben der Theodore von Linden (1783), Das Heimweh (1794), and Theobald, oder der Schwärmer (1797). In his autobiography he took a sentimental delight in picturing his 3 successive wives, and love and marriage are treated with special enthusiasm in his romances. In his later works he appears as a ghost-seer and theosophist. The most important of them are: Theorie der Geisterkunde (1808), and Apologie der Theorie der Geisterkunde (1809), full of marvellous but not carefully authenticated narratives; Scenen ausdem Geisterreich (1817), consisting of conversations in heaven, and inculcating a sort of worship of genius; and the poem Chrysäon, oder das goldene Zeitalter (1819), descriptive of the millennium. His various works were collected in 14 vols. (Stuttgart, 1838).-His daughter AMALIE, who presided over an institution founded by the grand duchess Stephanie of Baden, died in Mannheim in Jan. 1860.

JUNGERMANNIA (Linn.), the name of a genus of small cryptogamic plants, of which there are many species indigenous to North America. The genus is dedicated to Jungermann, a German botanist of the 17th century, and it was at one time the type of the natural order, which comprises a large number of distinct kinds. They are also sometimes called scale mosses, being creeping moss-like plants, with entire, or from two to many lobed stem leaves, the fructification terminal on the main stem or on a short branch; the floral organs are scattered, free or immersed antheridia and solitary pistillidia, having both an involucre and involucel. The seed-like bodies (sporidia) are mixed with spiral threads (elaters), and con