8131 GEOGRAPHY UNIVERSITY A landlocked country, Afghanistan lies between the Middle East, Soviet Central Asia, the Chinese Province of PROFILE Geography AREA: 260,000 sq. mi. (approx. the size of Texas). CAPITAL: Kabul (pop. 500,000). OTHER CITIES: Kandahar (200,000), Herat (100,000), Mazar-i-Sharif (60,000). People POPULATION: 17 million (1972 est.). ANNUAL GROWTH RATE: 2.5% (1972). DENSITY: 70 per sq. mi. ETHNIC GROUPS: Pushtun (Pathan), Tajik, Uzbek, Hazara, Aimaq, Turkoman. RELIGION: Sunni Muslim. LANGUAGES: Dari (Afghan Persian), Pushtu. LITERACY: 8-10%. LIFE EXPECTANCY: 40 yrs. Government TYPE: Republic. INDEPENDENCE: May 27, 1919. DATE OF CONSTITUTION: None (1964 Constitution abrogated in 1973). BRANCHES: Executive-President; rules by decree. Legislative-annuled in 1973. Judicial-judiciary under executive branch. POLITICAL PARTIES: None. POLITICAL SUBDIVISIONS: 28 provinces. Sinkiang, and the subcontinent of India and Pakistan. Its strategic location has had a major influence on its history. Afghanistan's immediate neighbors are the U.S.S.R., Iran, Pak FLAG: Three horizontal bands of black, red, and green, with emblem of the republic in upper left corner. The golden emblem consists of an eagle, rising sun, and mehrab and monbar (Islamic symbols) surrounded by two sheaves of wheat. Economy (As a sizable portion of the economy is nonmonetized, statistics on production and trade are not fully reliable.) GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT (GNP): $1.5 billion (1973 est.). ANNUAL GROWTH RATE: 2%. PER CAPITA INCOME: $85. PER CAPITA GROWTH RATE: Less than 2%. AGRICULTURE: Land 15-20%. Labor approx. 80%. Products-wheat, cotton, fruit and nuts, karakul pelts, wool, mutton. INDUSTRY: Labor n/a. Productstextiles, soap, furniture, shoes, carpets, fertilizer, cement. NATURAL RESOURCES: Natural gas, oil, coal, copper, talc, barites, sulphur, lead, zinc, iron, salt, precious and semi-precious stones. TRADE: Exports-$90 million (1972, excluding barter trade): natural gas, fruit and nuts, karakul pelts, raw cotton, carpets, wool. Partners-U.S.S.R. (45%), U.S., U.K., India, Pakistan, Iran. Imports-$130 million (1972): capital goods, petroleum products, sugar, textiles, foodstuffs. PartnersU.S.S.R. (50%), U.S., Japan, India, U.K., Federal Republic of Germany. OFFICIAL EXCHANGE RATE: 45 Afghanis=US$1. ECONOMIC AID RECEIVED: Totalmore than $1.5 billion since 1950 (principally from U.S.S.R.) U.S. only-$450 million (loans, grants, surplus agricultural products since 1950). MEMBERSHIP IN INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS: U.N. and most of its specialized agencies, Asian Development Bank (ADB). istan, and the People's Republic of China. From southwest to northeast the country is divided by the towering mountain ranges (up to 25,000 feet above sea level) of the Hindu Kush and the Pamirs. Mountains and arid desert country are interspersed by small valleys made fertile by irrigation from snow-fed mountain streams. The principal rivers drain to the southwest into a depression known as the Seistan on the Afghan-Iranian border. Other rivers flow to the southeast into the Indus in Pakistan and to the north into the Amu Darya (the Oxus River), which forms a large part of the northern boundary between Afghanistan and the Soviet Union. Afghanistan's climate is typical of the higher regions of central Asia, cold in the winter and hot and dry in the summer. Another characteristic of the climate is the extreme range of temperature change within short periods, from season to season and from place to place. For example, in summer at Kabul (6,000 ft.) the temperature may be 60°F at sunrise and by noon reach 100°F. Kabul's mean temperature in January is 32°F. In the plains of Jalalabad (1,800 ft.) summer temperatures can reach 115°F. Rainfall is scanty-nowhere more than 15 inches annually. The rainy season extends from October to April, but much of the precipitation is winter snow and spring rains. PEOPLE Afghanistan's ethnically and linguistically mixed population reflects its location astride trade and invasion routes that lead from central Asia into the Middle East and the Indian Subcontinent. The bulk of the Afghans are Pushtun (Pathan), Tajik, Uzbek, Turkoman, and Hazara, with small groups of other peoples represented. The dominant group, the Pushtun, comprises about half of the total population. Afghan Persian (Dari) and Pushtu are the principal languages spoken, although Turki is also used in the north. The principal cities of Afghanistan are the capital, Kabul, in the east; Kandahar, southwest of Kabul; Herat, near the Iranian border in the northwest; and Mazar-i-Sharif, near the Soviet border in the north. Other cities with industrial bases are growing. Afghanistan is a Muslim country. Religion pervades all aspects of life; religious doctrine and codes provide the principal means of controlling conduct and settling legal disputes. Except for a rather small urban population in the principal cities, most of the people are divided into clan and tribal groups and follow centuries-old customs and religious practices in the conduct of their affairs. HISTORY Afghanistan, often called the crossroads of central Asia, has had a turbulent history and suffered many invasions. In 328 B.C. Alexander the Great entered present-day Afghanistan and, after crossing the Helmand River and the Hindu Kush, captured ancient Bactria (present-day Balkh). His rule was followed by domination by Scythians, White Huns, and Turks. In 652 A.D. Afghanistan fell to the conquering Arabs, who brought with them a new religion, Islam. Arab rule gave way to Persian rule, which continued until 998 when Mahmud of Ghazni (of Turkish extraction) assumed control. Mahmud estab lished Ghazni as a great capital and cultural center, from where he repeatedly invaded India to spread the Muslim faith. Mahmud's dynasty was short-lived, however, and Afghanistan was ruled by various princes until the Invasion of Ghengis Kahn in the early READING LIST These titles are provided as a general indication of the material published on Afghanistan. The Department of State does not endorse the specific views in unofficial publications as representing the position of the U.S. Government. Adamec, Ludwig. Afghanistan's Foreign Affairs to the MidTwentieth Century. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1974. American University. Area Handbook for Afghanistan, 4th ed. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973. Dupree, Louis. Afghanistan. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974. Dupree, Louis. American Universities Field Staff Reports, Afghanistan Series. New York: American Universities Field Staff. Fletcher, Arnold. Afghanistan, Highway of Conquest. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1965. Fraser-Tytler, William K. Afghan 13th century, which resulted in the destruction of Herat, Ghazni, and Balkh. Late in the 14th century Afghanistan was again devastated-this time by the invasion of Tamerlane-and became part of his huge Asian empire. In the early 16th century Afghanistan came under the rule of Babar, who founded the Moghul dynasty in India and who is buried at Kabul, his favorite city. Afghanistan was founded as an independent kingdom by Ahmad Shah Durrani, who was crowned the first King of Afghanistan in 1747. From then until 1973, when the monarchy was overthrown and a republic established, the throne was occupied by a member of the Durrani tribe, although from 1818 by a different clan. Ahmad Shah consolidated various chieftainships, petty principalities, and provinces into one country, Afghanistan, which then included within its borders the area now known as the Northwest Frontier Province of Pakistan and istan: A Study of Political Developments in Central and Southern Asia, 3rd ed. London: Oxford University Press, 1967. Grassmuch, George, and Adamec, Ludwig, eds. Afghanistan: Some New Approaches. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1969. Gregorian, Vartan. The Emergence of Modern Afghanistan. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1969. Griffiths, John C. Afghanistan. New Macrory, Patrick. Signal Catastro- Poullada, Leon B. Reform and Rebellion in Afghanistan, 1919-29: King Amanullah's Failure to Modernize a Tribal Society. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1973. Stewart, Rhea Talley. Fire in Afghanistan: 1914-1929. New York: Doubleday, 1973. parts of the Punjab, Baluchistan, and other sections of northwestern India. European Influence During the 19th century, as British power in India expanded and Russia moved into central Asia in its push to the East, the history of Afghanistan was significantly influenced for the first time by European countries. British efforts to secure a stronger position to counter Russian influence in Persia (Iran) and central Asia led to the first Anglo-Afghan war of 1838-42. The British invaded and set their candidate on the throne only to find that they could not effectively control the country. Their forced withdrawal from Kabul in 1842 was disastrous, and virtually all of the approximately 16,000 troops and camp followers were slaughtered by the Afghans. Retaliatory military action followed, and an Afghan leader acceptable to the United Kingdom was put on the throne. TRAVEL NOTES Climate and Clothing-The climate of Kabul is similar to that in Denver but drier and dustier. Winter lasts from December through February; summer, mid-May to mid-September. Conservative dress is appropriate. Customs-Entry and exit visas are required. Visas are sometimes issued for all modes of entry (land or air), and sometimes for a single mode of entry. Be sure your visa covers your planned mode of entry. Immunization against smallpox, typhus, and cholera are required; if you cross Pakistan, inoculation against yellow fever is also required. Health-No health controls nor sanitary regulations govern the safety of foods in markets and restaurants. Water should be boiled, and fruits, vegetables, and meat should be well cooked. Transportation-Neighboring countries provide flights to Kabul. Afghan airlines provide domestic service. In Kabul, taxis are used to some extent, and buses are often overcrowded and uncomfortable. Telecommunications-Long-distance telephone service is available to most parts of the world but must be booked and paid for in advance at the central post office. Cables, forwarded from Kabul by radio, take 8-24 hours to arrive. British anxiety over Russian advances in central Asia and Afghan dealings with Russia led to the second Anglo-Afghan war of 1878-80, which brought the Amir Abdur Rahman to the throne. This ruler agreed to British control of Afghan foreign affairs. In return for this he received an annual subsidy. In 1893 the Amir recognized the Durand Line as the boundary between Afghanistan and British India, and it remains the present boundary between Afghanistan and Pakistan. Afghanistan's borders with Russia also were established along their present lines during the Amir's reign. Under the Amir's leadership the royal family's control of the country was strengthened and the hold of the central government over the heterogeneous population and outlying areas was tightened. Reform and Reaction After the third Anglo-Afghan war King Amanullah set about making changes in his country. Moving from its traditional isolation, Afghanistan entered into diplomatic relations with the principal nations of the world. In 1927 the King made an extensive tour of Europe, an experience which fired him with a desire to modernize Afghanistan, including abolishing the traditional Muslim veil for women. This modernization effort alienated many tribal and religious leaders and, together with the depletion of the national treasury and the deterioration of his army, made him easy prey for Bacha-i-Saqao, a brigand, who captured Kabul and declared himself King early in 1929. Nadir Khan defeated Bacha-i-Saqao on October 10, 1929, with Pushtun tribal support. He was declared King, returning the crown to the Durrani tribe but not to the same direct line. Nadir Shah was a member of the Yahya Khel branch of the Mohammadzai clan of the Durrani tribe. This group ruled Afghanistan from 1929-73. Nadir Shah's brothers, who had assisted him in defeating Bacha-iSaqao, became prominent members of his government. He adopted a cautious policy of modernization, education, and economic development. His son, Mohammad Zahir Shah, succeeded to the throne on November 8, 1933, after the assassination of Nadir Shah by a fanatic follower of the previous dyDuring World War I Afghanistan nasty. Nadir Shah's brothers were World War I Prime Ministers through 1952, and Zahir Shah's cousins, Sardar Mohammad Daoud and Sardar Mohammad Naim, were Prime Minister and Deputy Prime Minister/Foreign Minister from 1953 until March 1963. In March 1963 Zahir Shah accepted Prime Minister Daoud's resignation and began to assume a larger role in governing the country. With the 1964 Constitution as the vehicle, Zahir introduced a program of social and political reform under a more liberal parliamentary rule. In practice the socalled "Experiment in Democracy" produced few lasting reforms, with frequent executive-legislative deadlocks delaying or blocking vital legislation. Under this more relaxed rule permitting political expression but without a legalized political party system, the country's moderate reformers were increasingly overshadowed by extremists of both the left and right. A 2-year drought in 1971-72 worsened economic conditions. Amid charges of corruption and malfeasance, the monarchy was removed from power by a virtually bloodless military coup d'etat led by former Prime Minister Mohammad Daoud on July 17, 1973. The 1964 Constitution was abrogated, and Afghanistan was declared a republic with Daoud as its first President and Prime Minister. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS Upon seizing power and deposing the King in July 1973, President Daoud abrogated the Constitution of 1964 that had established a two-house parliamentary system and a judiciary independent of and coequal with the legislative and executive branches. The leadership of the Republic of Afghanistan has stated its intention of creating a new democratic constitution; however, it has not yet been promulgated. The government has declared that all existing laws, either from specific prior legislation or derived from the Koran, will remain valid unless specifically voided by the new regime. Pending a new constitution, the government rules by decree. Principal Government Officials President, Prime Minister, Minister of Foreign Affairs, and Minister of National Defense-Mohammad Daoud Deputy Prime Minister-Hasan Sharq Justice-Abdul Majid Education-Nehmatullah Pazhwak Sekandar Culture and Information-Abdul Rahim Navin Agriculture and Irrigation-Ghulam Jailani Bakhtari Commerce-Mohammad Khan Jalallar Planning-Ali Ahmad Khurram Frontier Affairs-(vacant) Communications-(vacant) Finance-Sayed Abdul Ellah Afghanistan maintains an Embassy in the United States at 2341 Wyoming Avenue, NW., Washington, D.C. 20008. ECONOMY Afghanistan is primarily an agricultural country. Only 15-20 percent of the land is considered suitable for farming, but there is no serious strain on the land. As much as half the arable land is uncultivated. Although reliable statistics are not available to determine the exact production figures, Afghanistan apparently achieved net self-sufficiency in foodgrains in 1973, not long after the end of a serious drought. A new emphasis on cotton production to take advantage of high world prices may reduce foodgrain production somewhat, but Afghanistan is in a good position agriculturally, assuming continued availability of fertilizer. The industrial sector, both public and private, is growing. Of the country's mineral resources, only natural gas has been extensively developed. The national budget has averaged more than $130 million in recent years. The principal expenditures have been for development, education, and defense, while the principal sources of revenue have been foreign assistance, income taxes, and customs duties. Trade With the development of its natural gas fields in the north, Afghanistan's largest export has become natural gas, principally to the U.S.S.R., projected at 2.8 billion cubic meters in 1974. Its other major exports are primarily raw and processed agricultural products. It is beginning to export mineral products such as barites and talc, but these form a small percentage of the total. Total commercial exports have averaged close to $90 million annually, but a larger amount is exported each year on the basis of bilateral commodity barter agreements with the U.S.S.R., other Eastern European countries, and India. Iran is gradually becoming a more important trading partner and should become even more important as new transportation links are opened through proposed assistance programs. The U.S.S.R. is Afghanistan's largest consumer. Besides importing Afghan natural gas, the Soviet Union also is the major importer of Afghan cotton, wool, and oilseed production and has become an important market for dried fruit and nuts. The United States and United Kingdom are the major importers of Afghan karakul pelts, while the major carpet importer is Western Europe, especially the Federal Republic of Germany. For many years the U.S.S.R. has been Afghanistan's principal supplier and has provided capital goods, petroleum products, and sugar. Other suppliers have provided machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, petroleum products, and textiles. These imports annually exceed exports by $50-$60 million. The difference has been financed by long-term assistance from the U.S.S.R., the United States, and other developed countries. Transportation Communication facilities in the country are poor, but they are being developed rapidly. Although there are no railways or navigable rivers within Afghanistan, the Amu Darya River on the Soviet-Afghan border does carry some barge traffic. The primary road system is a circular highway connecting the principal cities. Most roads are unpaved and bridges frequently washed out, but a number of projects financed by long-term loans from the United States and the Soviet Union have been completed. U.S. projects include the Kabul-Torkham and the Kandahar-Spin Baldak roads (both facilitating communication with Pakistan) the Kabul-Kandahar road, and a road from Herat to the Iranian border. The Soviets have built a road and tunnel through the Salang Pass in the Hindu Kush to Kunduz and Mazar-iSharif and a road from the SovietAfghan border north of Herat to Kandahar. The total Afghan road network now consists of approximately 6,000 miles of which 1,200 miles are paved. Aviation is assuming increasing importance in Afghanistan. With U.S. financial and technical assistance, a modern international airport has been completed at Kandahar, and airports at Herat, Kunduz, Mazar-i-Sharif, and Jalalabad have been modernized. The United States has also trained pilots and technicians and extended loans for the purchase of planes and ground equipment. In addition, the U.S.S.R. has constructed a modern international airport at Kabul. The Afghan national airline, Ariana, provides international jet service to Europe, India, Pakistan, Iran, the U.S.S.R., and the Middle East. International service is also provided by Soviet, Pakistani, and Iranian airlines. By 1971 Afghanistan's civil air transport had reached 171 million passenger kilometers. Economic Development Afghanistan embarked on an economic development program in the 1930's. Banks were established, and paper money was successfully circulated. A university was established; primary, secondary, and technical schools were expanded; and students were sent abroad for higher education. Despite these efforts, illiteracy and lack of technical training still remain serious problems. Industrial expansion has been limited by a lack of financial and other |