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By apostolic blows and knocks;
Call fire and sword and desolation
A godly, thorough reformation,
Which always must be carried on,
And still be doing, never done:
As if religion were intended
For nothing else but to be mended.
A sect whose chief devotion lies
In odd perverse antipathies ;
In falling out with that or this,

One way, and long another for.
Freewil! they one way disavow,
Another nothing else allow
All piety consists therein
In them, in other men all sin.
Rather than fail, they will decry
That which they love most
tenderly;

Quarrel with minced pies, and disparage

At the outward wall, near which The hands in grate are fast enough. there stands

A

bastile, built to imprison hands;

By strange enchantment made to fetter

The lesser part, and free the greater;

For though the body may pass through

They ope the trap-door gate, And let Crowdero down thereat; Crowdero making doleful face, Like hermit poor in pensive place; To dungeon they the wretch commit,

And the survivor of his feet."

And finding somewhat still amiss; Their best and dearest friend, This dungeon is the parish stocks, in which they leave their

More peevish, cross, and splenetic Than dog distract or monkey sick; That with more zeal keep holy day The wrong than others the right way;

plum porridge;

Fat pig and goose itself oppose, And blaspheme custard through

the nose.

The apostles of this fierce religion, Compound for sins they are Like Mahomet's, were ass and inclined to widgeon;

By damning those they have no mind to;

Still so perverse and opposite, As if they worshipped God for spite.

The selfsame thing they will abhor

To whom our knight by fast

instinct

Of wit and temper was so linked,
As if hypocrisy and nonsense
Had got the advowson of his

conscience."

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Not less sarcasm and contempt is displayed in describing the external appearance and equipments of Hudibras; his tawny beard, which he had vowed not to cut till the monarchy should fall, and which is accordingly compared, in an intensely humorous passage, to the "supplemental noses which "learned Taliacotius cut from the flesh of one person and affixed to the face of another, and which lived as long as and died with him from whom they were cut; his clumsy, unwieldy figure; his loose breeches crammed with stores of provisions, and so frequently robbed by rats and mice; his rusty sword, dagger, and pistols; and his steed, no less ungainly than its master

"Sturdy, large, and tall, with mouth of meal and eye of wall.” Less elaborate but not less pointed and humorous is the portrait of Ralph, the squire, and his qualities of mind and body

"His knowledge was not far Which some call gifts, and some behind

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vanquished enemy. But their triumph is short. The scattered foes rally, the fight is renewed, and at last Hudibras, overthrown by the "virago stout and tall," and Ralph, his squire, are led away, and placed in the same stocks in which the fiddler had lain before. There the conclusion of the first part leaves them consoling themselves for their bruises and disgrace by a ludicrous controversy upon points of doctrine.

We have spoken in some detail of the story of the first part of the poem, in the hope that such an introduction may be found useful by the student who wishes to make himself acquainted with "Hudibras." The latter parts of the poem are, perhaps, not quite on a level with the first, but they fall very little short of it. The knight's adventures with the lady of whom he is enamoured, with the conjuror Sidrophel, and the other incidents of the second and third parts, are supremely humorous, and attain to the full Butler's object of rendering Hudibras and his squire contemptible, and give ample scope for the poet's learning and imagination. We cannot examine these latter parts with any minuteness. A very few extracts are all for which we can find introduction to render their meaning clear :— space. The passages which we select require no explanation or

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This precious brother having slain,
In time of peace, an Indian,
Not out of malice, but mere zeal,
Because he was an infidel,
The mighty Tottipottymoy
Sent to our elders an envoy,
The rot in sheep and mange in Complaining, sorely, of the breach
Of league held forth by brother
Patch

swine."

The adventures, base, cowardly, and ridiculous, through which this pair of worthies are led by the author, are quite in keeping with their character. Their first attempt is to put down a bear-baiting at Brentford, and bring the offenders to justice, the whole being, of course, intended to display in a ludicrous light the Puritans' aversion to this and all other public amusements. The leaders of the party opposed to the knight-Crowdero, a wooden-legged fiddler; Orsin, the bear leader; the bear himself; Talgol, a butcher, "mortal foe to Cows; Magnano, a tinker; Trulla, "a bold virago stout and tall; "Cerdon, a cobbler; and Colon, an ostler-and the various incidents of the combat are all described with mock. heroic dignity. At last the first fight ends in the seeming triumph of the knight and squire, who carry off the woodenlegged fiddler to

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Hang an old weaver that was bedrid."

"Doubtless the pleasure is as
great

Of being cheated as to cheat;
As lookers-on feel most delight
That least perceive a juggler's
sleight;

And still the less they understand The more they admire his sleight of hand.

Some with a noise and greasy light

Are snapped, as men catch larks by night;

Ensnared and hampered by the soul,

As nooses by their legs catch fowl: Some with a medicine and receipt Are drawn to nibble at the bait; And, though it be a two-foot trout, Are with a single hair pulled out. Others believe no voice to an organ

So sweet as lawyer's in his bar

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We have spoken already of the great and immediate popularity of "Hudibras." There is one result of that popularity which ought not to pass unnoticed. Few things are more striking than the completeness with which, down to a few years ago, one particular view of the Puritan character maintained undisputed predominance in English literature, and that view an exaggera tion and caricature of one side only of their many-sided character, The view of which we speak is exactly that of "Hudibras;" and we believe that Butler, by his great satire. contributed more than any other man to stamp upon English literature that impression which only in the present generation has been com. pletely removed.

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LESSONS IN GEOLOGY.-XXV.

THE TERTIARY SYSTEM.

WE now enter, geologically speaking, modern times. The beds of the Tertiary, and their fossil contents, offer many a sight at least not unfamiliar to modern observation. From the similarity of the forms of life of the Tertiary epoch to those animals which now people the earth, the period, looking at it from this point of view, has been termed Cainozoic. The exact scale of the inclination by which the past rises into the present has been used by Lyell to separate the Tertiary into three divisions. M. Deshayes examined some 3,000 Tertiary shells, comparing them with existing species. In the lower Tertiary, which is found in the neighbourhoods of London and Paris, 3.5 per cent. of the

The upper division is the Pliocene (λetov, pli'-on, more; and Kaivos, recent), as it contains more recent species than any of the lower beds. It is needless, perhaps, to observe that the words in brackets following the Greek forms are merely intended to give the reader who is unacquainted with Greek a suitable idea of the way in which these words should be pronounced. As in other parts of the POPULAR EDUCATOR, the sounds of the Greek words are represented phonetically. The Tertiary, as a whole, is not so clearly defined as the deposits of the preceding periods. However, the following synopsis will give the student some indication of the localities and the appearances of the beds. The limits of our space compel us to treat of the English Tertiaries mainly, although the deposits do not find in our island a typical development.

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fossils proved to be of species still in existence. From the middle Tertiary of the Loire and Gironde 17 per cent. were found to have representatives now alive; while the upper Tertiary or sub-Apennine beds yielded from 37 to 50 per cent. of existing species. Further south, in Sicily, are much newer Tertiary beds, rising above the sea to a great thickness, and the fossils in these exhibited, with a very few exceptions-only 5 per cent.-the same life as is to-day existing in the Mediterranean Sea. This brought the deposition of these beds into recent times, and consequently geologists have separated them away from the Tertiary, and classed them with recent deposits, under the name of post-Tertiary.

The lower, middle, and upper Tertiaries, mentioned above, are now known by names bestowed upon them by Lyell. The lowest is termed Eocene, from nws (e'-ose, the dawn) and kaLVOS (ki'-nos, recent)-the dawn of new or recent times. The central division is the Miocene (uelov, mi'-on, less, and Kaivos, recent)-a term intended to express a minor proportion of recent species.

VOL. VI.

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This formation is developed in the neighbourhood of London. If two lines be drawn from a point some twenty miles west of Reading, one passing through Norwich and the other through Canterbury, crossing the channel to the Netherlands, this area of the Eocene will be embraced by them. The north of the Isle of Wight and a triangular patch, extending a little to the north of Salisbury, west to Dorchester, and east to Newhaven, gives the delineation of the other Eocene area. The deposit is shown in the Paris basin, and then is traced south as far as the uppermost bend of the Loire.

The Thanet Sands. In the Hampshire area, the Eocene clay often rests on the chalk; but in the Isle of Thanet, between Herne Bay and the Reculvers, appears a bed of sand some seventy or eighty feet thick, which contains Pholadomya, Cyprina, Corbula, and Scalaria. The true position of this bed has been proved by Mr. Prestwich to be between the chalk and The Woolwich clays, which were evidently deposited by a great river emptying itself into the Eocene sea near the present site of Woolwich. From the mixture of marine, brackish, and fresh-water shells, it appears that now the fresh-water and now the salt-water occupied the estuary; and these changes could not have been slow, for the fresh-water mollusks are frequently found in their natural positions, indicating that they were killed where they lived, and have never been since disturbed. As the Woolwich clays are traced inland, they bear more and more evidence of the presence of fresh water, while, following them in the other direction, they show that the waves of the sea beat upon a shore not far off, and the clays contain the fossils of a marine fauna.

The London clay, which immediately overlies the last deposit, is of deep-sea origin. It consists of bluish or brown clay, very tenacious, and sometimes containing those septaria, of which we have before said Roman cement is made, though from its fineness, and the thickness of its bed, it must have been deposited in the quiet depths of the deep sea; yet land must have been in the neighbourhood, for the teeth and bones of crocodiles, the eggs of turtles, and the fruits of palms, have been found in the London clay. The deposit reaches its greatest thickness about the Isle of Sheppey; it gradually thins out to the east, being scarcely represented in Belgium, and not at all in France. The ils are numerous, and, as may be seen from those which are red, are nearly approaching to present forms. For instance, a amygdaloides (Fig. 135), Nautilus ziczac (Fig. 136), Voluta sa (Fig. 137), the Cryptodon angulatum (Fig. 138). The Bagshot sands occupy extensive districts in the neighhood of Bagshot, Aldershot, and in the New Forest in mpshire. In the basin of the Thames they are the upperost members of the Eocene group, all above them having suffered denudation; but in Hampshire, having been tilted up at an angle, they were protected from being exposed by having the superincumbent beds swept off. The Bagshot and Bracklesham beds are of sand, clay, and limestone, usually soft, though now and then sufficiently hard for building material.

Though soft beds have not the power of preserving fossils with great care, yet there are some in these beds of much interest. It is here we first meet the Nummulite, a foraminiferous shell, that is, one perforated with holes, from which issued filaments, or roots, which bestowed upon the class the name of Rhizopods, or radiate animals. The word nummulite is coined

from nummus, money, because the shells are small discs, thicker in the centre than at the edges; when the interior is laid open it is found to be spirally chambered (Fig. 139). These creatures are almost peculiar to the Eocene, very few being found in the lower Miocene; and so restricted are their species, that the lower Eocene may be divided into three sections, according to the species of nummulites they contain. The Nummulites variolaria characterises the upper beds; Nummulites lævigata is found in the middle beds, whilst the lower contain solely the Nummulites planulata.

The nummulite life was vast and profuse. The limestone rocks formed by these shells are found stretching in an almost unbroken chain from the west of Europe to India. To quote Lyell, "The nummulitic formation often attains a thickness of many thousand feet, and extends from the Alps to the Carpathians, and is in full force in the north of Africa, as, for example, in Algeria and Morocco. It has also been traced from Egypt, where it was largely quarried of old for the building of the pyramids, into Asia Minor, and across Persia by Bagdad to the mouths of the Indus. It occurs not only in Cutch, but in the mountain-ranges which separate Scinde from Persia, and it has been followed still farther eastward into India, as far as Eastern Bengal and the frontiers of China." This is a remarkable example of uniformity of life, for many of the same species are common to France and Cutch; and the vast accumulation of organic life exhibited in this Eocene deposit is perfectly incalculable.

Of the other fossils contained by these beds we figure some. The Venericardia planicosta (Fig. 140), Pleurotoma attenuata (Fig. 141), Turritella multisulcata (Fig. 142), Conus deperditus (Fig. 143). In these beds are found many sharks' teeth; and, not having given any previous drawings of these fossils, we here add some specimens (Figs. 144, 145, 146).

The Barton clay and Upper Bagshot sands present a thickness of some 500 feet. The former deposit has yielded upwards of 250 marine shells. The Chama squamosa is particularly plentiful.

The Headon series, which are the centre of the middle Eocene, may be seen at the east and west extremities of the Isle of Wight. As our table indicates, the upper and lower beds are of fresh-water origin, while the sea seems to have made the water brackish during the deposition of the middle strata. The Planorbis enomphalus (Fig. 147) characterises the fresh-water deposits, while the Potamomya plana and Cerithium mutabile are found in the brackish deposits. There is an interesting shell, the Helix labyrinthica, found in this deposit, which is now living on the land in the United States. The Headon series occupies some 200 feet.

The Osborne series, which are the uppermost members of the middle Eocene, supply the Nettlestone grit, which is used for building-stone at Ryde. They are also of fresh-water and brackish origin, but are not more than seventy feet thick. They contain marked species of Paludina, Melania, and Melanopsis, and frequently the seeds of the fresh-water plant, the Chara. The Bembridge series is the lower member of the upper Eocene. The beds, which are marls, clays, and fresh-water limestones, reach a thickness of 115 feet. In these beds were first discovered the fossil remains of the Palæotherium, the extinct mammal which Cuvier completed from a partial skeleton found in the Paris basin. The correctness of the great naturalist's surmise has been proved by many fossil remains of the creature which have been since found. It was about fou feet high (Fig. 148). Of the other fossils the beds contain thes were the chief :-Planorbis discus (Fig. 149), Bulimus ellipticu (Fig. 150), Lymnea longiscata (Fig. 151), Chara tuberculati (Fig. 152).

The Hempstead beds are at the top of the Eocene; they use to be classed at the bottom of the Miocene. They take thei name from a hill near Yarmouth, Isle of Wight. At their bas is the "black band," so called because of its colour, from th presence of carbonaceous matter. It is a marl deposited fro a fresh-water estuary. Two other deposits, scarcely so thick succeed it, each distinguished by its fossils, and the whole surmounted by the Corbula beds, which consist of marine sand and clays. which are characterised by the abundance of th corbula pisum (Fig. 152), which are also found in the Barto beds.

The Paris basin is a depression in the chalk in which th Eocene beds have been deposited. The beds mainly correspon

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to the English series, but two are peculiarly prominent-the
Calcaire grossier, which is rough limestone, of which the houses
of Paris are built; and the Gypsum beds of Montmartre, which
are accumulations of sulphate of lime. This, when calcined,
produces the well-known plaster of Paris. It was in these beds
that the mammalian remains were discovered upon which Cuvier
founded the science of Comparative Anatomy. He astounded
the scientific world by building up the complete skeleton from
a few fragments. Subsequent discoveries of other remains
proved conclusively that the deductions of the great naturalist
were correct, and that it was possible to determine the con-
struction of an animal from the inspection of part of its
skeleton. Here was the foundation laid of the science of
Comparative Anatomy.

CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF THE EOCENE PERIOD.
Plastic Clay.

Plants. Many beautiful leaves and some stems from the clays near
Reading, etc.
Conchifera.-Avicula arcuata; Ostræa pulchra; Arca depressa; Astarte
tenera; Cardium Plumsteadiense; Corbula Arnouldii; Cyprina
planata; Cyrena cordata; Leda striata; Modiola simplex; Nucula
compressa; Pholadomya virgulosa.

Gasteropoda.-Melania inquinata; Melanopsis buccinoidea; Murex
foliaceus; Planorbis hemistoma, lævigatus.
Crustacea.-Cytherea angulatopora, plicata.
Reptiles-Chelone, fragments of.

Birds.-First phalangeal bone of a bird's foot.
Mammalia.- Hyracotherium cuniculus; Lophiodon or Coryphodon,
fragments of.

London Clay.

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Gasteropoda.-Aporrhais Sowerbyi; Cypræa oviformis; Murex coro-
natus; Natica microstoma; Pleurotoma acuminata; Veluta
denudata.

Cephalopoda. Nautilus centralis, imperialis, regalis.
Echinodermata.-Astropecten armatus, crispatus.

Fish.- Acestrus ornatus; Eurygnathus cavifrons; Goniognatu
maxillaris; Loxostomus mancus: Megalops priscus; Myliobatis
acutus, striatus; Phyllodus irregularis, planus.

Reptiles.

Chelone breviceps, convexa; Crocodilus champsoides;
Trionyx pustulatus.

Birds.-Halcyornis Toliapicus; Lithornis vulturinus.
Mammalia.-Coryphodon eocænus; Hyracotherium leporinum.
Bagshot Series.

The Bracklesham beds contain

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LESSONS IN GREEK.-XLVII.

VERBS WHICH FOLLOW THE FORMATION OF VERBS IN μ. BESIDES those already mentioned, there are several other verbs which form their tenses according to the analogy of the verbs in ; such are—

1. διδρασκω, Ι run away from ; aor. (ΔΡΑ), απεδρᾶν, άς, ᾶ, ἄμεν, ᾶτε, ᾶσαν; subj. αποδρώ, δρᾷς, δρᾷ, δρῶμεν, δρᾶτε, δρῶσι(ν); opt. δραιην ; imp. αποδραθι, ατω ; inf. αποδρᾶναι ; part. δρᾶς, ᾶσα, αν.

2. πετομαι, I fy; aor. (ΠΤΑ) επτην; imp. πτῆναι; pass. πτας, act. mid. Taμην, imр. πтаσbai (by syncope).

3.

4.

σKEλλw or σkeλew, I dry, I dry up (hence our skeleton); aor.
(ΣΚΛΑ) εσκλην, I am dried up; inf. σκλῆναι ; opt. σκλαίην.
p0a-vw (with acc.), I get before, I anticipate; aor. ep0ny, 40w,
φθαίην, φθῆναι, φθας.
Kaiw, I burn (transit.); aor. (KAE) ekany,
I burat (intrans.),
but 1 aor. Ekaυoa (transit.), I set on fire.

5.

6. ἁλισκομαι, I am taken, caught; aor. (ΑΛΟ) ήλων and ἑάλων.
7. βιοω, I live; aor. εβιων ; subj. βιῶ, ὣς, @, etc., opt. βιψην
(not βιοιην, as γνοίην, to distinguish this part from the
opt. imperf. Bioiny); inf. Bival; part. Bious, ovσa (the
neuter does not occur); the cases, however, are supplied
by the 1st aor. Biwoas (so, aveßiwv, I lived again, from
avaßiwσkoμaι). The present and imperfect are little used
by the Attics, instead of which they employ Sŵ (saw),
which, on the other hand, borrows the remaining tenses
from Blow; thus-pres. (@, imperf. (wv, fut. Biwoouai, aor.
εβιων, perf. βεβιωκα, perf. pass. βεβίωται, part. βεβιωμενος.
8. puw, I bring forth; 2 aor. epuv, I arose, came into being;
φύναι, φυς, subj. φνω (no opt. in Attic), 1 aor. εφύσα, Ι
brought forth; fut. quow, I shall bring forth. The perfect
Tepuкa, I have come into being, I have become, is also in-
transitive. The mid. pres. qvoμai, fut. Quooμai.
Particular attention must be paid to a verb of frequent oc-
currence, namely, olda (stem EIA; vid-eo in Latin), I know.

Plants. Comptonia dryandrifolia; Pinites Dixoni.
Foraminifera.- Nummulites lævigatus, scaber.
Conehifera.-Ostræa elegans, inflata; Pecten corneus, multistriatus;
Pinna margaritacea; Cardium alternatum; Chama calcarata,
gigas; Corbula rugosa; Cypricardia carinata; Cytherea lucida,
striatula; Leda serrata; Mactra depressa; Modiola lithophaga;
Nucula ovata; Tellina lamellosa, reflexa, speciosa.
Gasteropoda.-Acteon sulcatus; Bulla expansa; Cerithium cornucopia,
cristata, giganteum, turris; Conus pyriformis, velatus; Fusus
'incultus, rugosus; Natica conoidea, obovata; Pleurotoma acumi- Ind. Sing. 1. oıda. Subj. eido.
nata, dentata; Turbo plicatus; Turritella contracta, marginata,
sulcata; Voluta angusta.

Reptiles.-Chelone trigoniceps; Gavialis Dixoni.

Mammalia.-Lophiodon minimus.

Barton Beds..

Zoophyta.-Turbinolia Bowerbankii, firma.

Brachiopoda.-Terebratula bisinuata.

Conchifera.- Lima obliqua; Pecten carinatus; Cardium discors;

PERFECT.

ειδῇς.
ειδῇ.

Imperat.
ισθι.
ιστω.

ειδῆτον. ιστον.

ειδῆτον. ιστων.

Infinit. ειδεναι.

Participle.

είδως, υία, ος.

2. οισθα. 3. οιδε(ν). Dual 2. ιστον. 3. ιστον.

Plur. 1. ισμεν.

ειδῶμεν.

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Chama squamosa; Cyrena obovata; Cytherea pusilla; Modiola sulcata ; Nucula trigona, deltoidea; Pholas conoidea; Solen Ind. Sing. 1. pdew. gracilis. Gasteropoda.-Ancylus elegans; Bulla conulus, ovulata; Cerithium cinctum; Conus dormitor; Murex contabulatus; Natica mutabilis; Nerita globosa; Turritella brevis; Voluta costata. Reptiles. -Alligator Hantoniensis; Crocodilus Hastingsiæ; Trionyx marginatus, planus.

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Fut. eiσouai, I shall know or experience. (Of oda there is this compound, σvvoida, I am conscious, inf. συνειδέναι, imp. συνισθι, subj. συνειδῶ, etc.).

INVARIABLE WORDS.

The words which we have hitherto studied are susceptible of

certain changes. We come next to words which do not undergo

change, or undergo change only to a smail extent. Many of these have occurred in the course of these lessons. Nevertheless, invariable or uninflected words must be put together and spoken of specifically.

PREPOSITIONS.

The prepositions require careful study, as on them, as well as on other invariable verbs, the sense very much depends, and you will be ignorant of some of the most delicate shades of meaning, and unaware of many an elegance, if you do not familiarise your mind with the import and the usage of the prepositions and the conjunctions particularly.

Prepositions have a relation to place, and denote the direction of an action in regard to place. Thus, I say " you go from home," "you go to home," "you go round the house," "you go over the wall." In order, therefore, to your possessing an exact knowledge of the prepositions, of which there are in Greek eighteen, you must study them in their relation to place.

The Prepositions arranged in their Relations to Place.

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1. Ev,

2. Els or es,

in. into. to.

de, σe, Se, and sometimes oL θεν

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whither you go.

whence you come.

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out of.

through which you pass.

from. through.

up.

8.

κατα.

down, at, on.

along.

with.

with.

7. ava,

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over, above.

under, by. before.

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around.

on.

against. instead of.

The following six words may also be considered as prepositions; namely, arep, aveu, without; éveka, on account of; axp, μexpi, up to, until; #λŋv, but, except.

Prepositions are very frequently used in combination with verbs. Such verbs are then said to be compounded with prepositions. Thus, by the addition of the preposition eis, into, to the simple verb ayw, I lead, we get the compound verb eoαyw, I lead into. More than one preposition may combine with a verb; for example

eğayw, I lead out (an army from its camp). #ape§ayw, I lead out (an army against the enemy). avτinapetaɣw, I lead out (an army and march it to assail the enemy).

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3. Adverbs of Quality. Adverbs of quality end in ws, and correspond to our adverbs in ly:-oops, wisely; weжaidevuevos, learnedly; evdaiores, fortunately.

To this class may be referred ourws (before a consonant oura). thus, in this way, from ovтos; Ekewws, in that way, from Ekelyos that person; and in general all the adverbs ending in ws. Others have the form of the genitive or dative of the first

declension:

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Usage has suppressed the iota subscript as found in houx do. Other adverbs of quality have the terminations et, Ti, T and consequently resemble datives of the third declension :

wavdnμei, en masse, the whole people.

aμaxnTi, without combat.

EXANVIOTI, in the Greek language or manner.

Some have the form of accusatives :

μarny (nominative obsolete), in vain.
δωρεαν
gratuitously.

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Those of this division in dov and Sny correspond with th

Latin adverbs in tim :

ayeλndov (gregatim), by flocks.

Kрußồŋν (furtim), secretly,

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