die Thränen, die Eurem Streit geflossen, the tears which have flowed in relation to (i.e., from) your dispute; mir törtete ein Schuß das Pferd, a shot killed a horse for me (i.e., killed my horse). (4.) The rule comprehends all such verbs as the following: antworten, to answer; tanken, to thank; dienen, to serve; trohen, to threaten; fehlen, to fall short; fluchen, to curse; folgen, to follow; fröhnen, to do homage; gebühren, to be due; gefallen, to please; gehören, to pertain to; gehorchen, to obey; genügen, to satisfy; gereichen, to be adequate; gleichen, to resemble; helfen, to help, etc. (5.) This rule also comprehends all reflective verbs that govern the dative; as, ich maße mir keinen Titel an, welchen ich nicht habe, I claim to myself no title, which I have not; as also all impersonals requiring the dative'; as, es beliebt mir, it pleases me, or, I am pleased; es mangelt mir, it is wanting to me, or, I am wanting, etc. (6.) The dative is also often used after passive verbs; as, von Geistern wird der Weg dazu beschüßt, the way thereto is guarded by angels; ihm wird gelohnt, (literally) it is rewarded to him, i.e., he is rewarded. An adjective used to limit the application of a noun, where, in English, the relation would be expressed by such words as to or for, governs the dative; as, Sei deinem Herrn getreu, be faithful to your master. - Under this rule are embraced (among others) the following adjectives: ähnlich, like; angemessen, appropriate; angenehm, agreeable; anstößig, offensive; bekannt, known; OBSERVATIONS. The following verbs require after them a genitive denoting a befchieden, destined; eigen, peculiar; fremt, foreign; gemäß, accordthing, and an accusative signifying a person: § 128.-RULE. Nouns denoting the time, place, manner, intent, or cause of an action, are often put absolutely in the genitive and treated as adverbs; as, tes Morgens gehe ich aus, in the morning I go out; man sucht ihn aller Orten, they seek him everywhere; ich bin Willens hinzugehen, I am willing to go there. OBSERVATIONS. This adverbial use of the genitive is quite common in German. (See § 101.) In order, however, to express the particular point, or the duration of time, the accusative is generally employed, or a preposition with its proper case. § 129.-RULE. A noun or pronoun used to represent the object in reference to which an action is done or directed, is put in the dative; as, ich danke dir, I thank (or am thankful to) you; er ist tem Tote entgangen, he has escaped from death. OBSERVATIONS.-(1.) The dative is the case employed to denote the person or the thing, in relation to which the subject of the verb is represented as acting. Compared with the accusative, it is the case of the remote object: the accusative being the case of the immediate object. Thus, in the example, ich schrieb meinem Vater einen Brief, I wrote (to) my father a letter, the immediate object is a letter; while father, the person to whom I wrote, is the remote object. The number of verbs thus taking the accusative with the dative is quite large. (2.) On the principle explained in the preceding observation may be resolved such cases as the following: es tut mir leid, it causes me sorrow, or, I am sorry; es wird mir im Herzen weh thun, it will cause pain to me in the heart (it will pain me to the heart), etc. (3.) A right regard to the observation made above, namely, that the dative merely marks that person or thing in reference to which an action is performed, will serve also to explain all such examples as these; Ihnen bereutet dieses Opfer nichts, to you (ie., so far as you are concerned) this sacrifice means nothing; ing to; gemein, common; gewachsen, competent; gnädig, gracious; heilsam, healthful; lieb, agreeable; nahe, near; überlegen, superior; willkommen, welcome; widrig, adverse; dienstbar, serviceable; gehorfam, obedient; nüglich, useful. PAINTING IN WATER-COLOURS.-VII. EFFECT OF COMBINATION ON COLOURS-CONCLUSION. As we are desirous that these lessons upon painting in watercolours should, as far as possible, explain the principles of the art, we deem it necessary to include other subjects for our By these further consideration, besides that of landscape. investigations we shall add to our means of explaining the theory, and open out a more extensive field for practice. All who have had any considerable experience in painting can testify to the benefit that is derived from allowing their attention and practice to extend to other objects, rather than by confining them to one class only; and although the objects of our choice may differ in kind and character as widely as possible, yet the same colours and manner of execution may to a great extent be common to all. Besides, the knowledge and power we gain, directly or indirectly, from the study of one class may be found serviceable when we take up others-directly, when the same colours and method of using them may be repeated; indirectly, in teaching us that there are certain combinations and modes of treatment which can only be employed in special cases, all of which must give us a command, both of manner and material, that cannot fail to be of advantage to us upon all occasions. When we consider that the proper application of colours lies in their arrangement and combinations, we shall not be at a loss to understand in what respect the diversity of study we speak of can help us to overcome the difficulties. Hence the source of originality, from depending principally upon our own observations. It is true we may in a great measure be guided by the experience of others, and it would be unwise to reject it; but as each painter has his own innate feeling, both of form and colour, which influences him in his method of representing either, we may easily account for the way in which every one makes for himself his own style and manner, peculiar to himself alone. On the other hand, they who entirely depend upon other men's experience, without looking away from it to Nature for the reasons which guided them in their practice, are but copyists, and more frequently copy the faults rather than the excellences of their masters. Let us suppose the case of two painters who have been in the habit of taking Nature as their guide, and ask each to paint the same subject according to his own ideas and the results of his own experience: we shall find their practice and theory so different as to make us almost doubt the possibility of their coming closely together at the conclusion; yet we find their finished pictures, when compared with the subject from which they were painted, to be truthful representations, but each in a different way. It is then our desire to encourage our pupils to think for themselves, and to endeavour, as far as possible, to show them how to But the artist may be able to explain how colours are affected in their combinations, and how they may be used to neutralise or give more force to other colours under any particular arrangement, or when employed for some especial purpose; therefore, in order to give a practical illustration of our observations, we have selected a group of objects differing in colour, but belonging to the same classification, to form the subject of our next picture (Fig. 10). Our pupils may easily obtain any of these, and place them on the table as they are arranged in the engraving, with the light from the left. Now, as there are great varieties look at Nature, and how to distinguish the characteristic features which mark the individuality of objects, even amongst those of the same species. Whatever the experience of an artist may be, he cannot say positively that such and such colours are to be used invariably, even for the same class of objects, because there are so many accidental circumstances operating to influence him in his mode of proceeding. The light may be different at different times, it may be stronger or brighter on one occasion than another. This would very much affect reflections, and especially so if the surrounding objects sent back their colours under a powerful light; and besides, the very objects themselves, though precisely the same in class and character, may, from various causes, exhibit different degrees of colour-brighter, warmer, or colder, as the case might be. of these, especially the stable-lantern and the jar, in size and details of colour, it is obvious that there can be no positive directions given as to the exact colour to be used, either in quantity or order; therefore, we can only explain the principles upon which they must proceed in painting them, that our pupils may be able to make their own deductions. We will commence with the jar. The majority of articles of this kind are of a dark-brown, warm colour, from the top to about one-third of the distance downwards; there are some of a pale, sickly yellow, approaching in tone to the rest of the colour below, but we prefer to take the darker. The prevailing colour in the upper portion is burnt sienna. The jar may not be very evenly stained, but should there be darker portions than the middle tone of sienna just mentioned (a, a, Fig. 10), paint them in, whilst the first wash of sienna is wet, with some madder brown, and a little sepia mixed with it for the darkest portions. The yellowish drab tone below may be imitated with yellow ochre, raw umber, and very little grey, the latter composed of sepia, cobalt blue, and a little lake. In the lower part of some jars there is a very slight tone approaching lake. This may be added to the colour at the time, or perhaps it would be better to leave it till the umber, ochre, and grey tone is dry, then glaze it with the lake; but as this colour will be so very faint as to be almost imperceptible, a very weak tint must be used. Here With respect to more decisive colours, to be found scattered in places over an object-but not altogether, as in the case of any general delicate tone like the one mentioned above-we advise that particular notice should be taken where they are warmer or cooler. These changes of colour are universal in Nature, and demand all the care that we can patiently bestow upon them. It is necessary to observe the strength of the colour either way which causes the difference, and when the under ground is dry, wash the required tint over it. In the case of the jar before us there is a warm tint over b, b of raw umber and Fig. 11.-EFFECT OF COMBINATION ON COLOUR-FINISHED DRAWING. is an instance of delicate tones so frequently found in Nature, and which give so much value to the painting, and are so very difficult for beginners to detect; it requires much experience to recognise them, and in first attempts the great danger is in overdoing them. We caution our pupils, when glazing colours over others that are dry, not to rub the brush backwards and forwards, because the first time the brush goes over the undertone the colour is softened, a repetition of this will rub it up, and then the purity is lost; the brush must be carefully passed over every part, and once only. We recommend the practice of trying the most prominent and positive colours, when prepared, on a piece of paper, and then hold it near to those parts of the object corresponding to the colour; this practice will greatly assist the judgment in determining the exact tone required. burnt sienna, the edges being broken off over the under colour until they are lost on the side of the light, and on the shadow side mingle with a cool grey near the edge of the jar. The next thing will be to put in the broad and cast shadows with the usual shadow tint-sepia, cobalt, and lake. The darkest portion on the object will be throughout the length, between b,b and c, c, making it sharp and decisive at c, c. The edge must be washed off on the light side, and continued on the shadow side with a somewhat lighter and cooler tone to the side of the jar. The cast shadow must be darker than the broad shadow. The shining bright spots, d, d, being the highest lights, may be wetted and rubbed off with india-rubber, as we explained in a former lesson upon sepia painting. The inside of the jar may require a purer yellow than the outside; if so, less umber must be used, great value in the eyes of an artist, who is open to receive instruction from whatever source it may be obtained. There are times and seasons when it would be impossible to seek our subjects out of doors, and on these occasions we must depend upon something we can place upon the table; and although our model may not be of the class to enable us to produce a picture of very high art, it may, nevertheless, afford us some valuable instruction, and on that account it must not be despised. and the brown colouring over the rim may be sharp and distinctless other objects, insignificant perhaps in themselves, possess in its edges. If our pupils will look at their model more attentively, after this first process is completed, they will no doubt perceive other colours more or less influencing the general effect-slight glazings of lake over some parts of the brown, especially on the light side. Probably here and there, in connection with these, some similar glazings of raw sienna, where the brown is not so strong and partakes of that colour; even delicate washes of indigo may be seen; but it must be remembered these are only suggestions, and must be followed with judgment. The next part of the subject to be considered is the lantern. The general colour here is grey. The horn through which the light passes will most probably be warmer in tone. This may be effected with burnt and raw sienna broken to different degrees of strength, and for the clearer parts a little yellow ochre may be useful. If the lantern is an old one, patches of rust may be scattered over it in places-Indian red will answer the purpose; but, as we have said, grey is the prevailing colour, diversified by warmer or cooler colours, subject to the manner in which they are disposed in the object. The darkest and very sharp shadows under the rim and in the corners can be imitated with sepia, indigo, and a little lake. There is a greenness about sepia and indigo alone which lake will neutralise and render the tint more intense. It will be well now to paint the background; this will reveal the strength of the colours in the objects, and very likely we shall discover some parts deficient. Let this at first be done with grey tint (backgrounds must be of a retiring character; grey will accomplish this), till it descends to below the top of the jar, then continue it to the bottom with an addition of raw umber and yellow ochre. If after this is dry a wash of terre verte be passed over the grey only, the slight green thus contributed will increase by contrast the value of the red, and confine the greys of the lantern more particularly to itself. Lastly, the bottle. This is a dark object, and affords a powerful contrast to the others, assisting to give the greys and lighter tones in the lantern their true value and strength. The principal and general colour will be sepia and indigo; but this will be broken up by a variety of other colours depending upon the objects which surround it. The narrow strips of middle tone at a, a were caused by the reflection of the jar and another object near it, not in the picture. The one b was from a saucer placed near to the bottle, and c was from a plaster cast that stood about two feet away from it. This being an object sus ceptible of reflection, everything near it has an influence upon the colour, and it must be remembered that the colours for these reflections are always those of the objects reflected. The cork may be painted with raw umber and a little ochre; the shadow sepia. The darkest parts of the bottle, not affected by reflection, must be put in with sharp, decisive touches of very dark indigo and sepia. There will also be many cool tones to be painted with indigo. Very frequently it is necessary to assist the very darkest parts with a little gum. We do not advocate an indiscriminate use of gum; but in cases like this, to assist the intensity of the darkest parts, an exception may be made; only it must be used sparingly, or the intention would be frustrated. Now we desire our pupils to understand that the above hints are given for the purpose of directing them how to look at an object and to study its colour. No absolute rule could be given for painting either this or any other subject; even if it were possible to write one, it could not be of any use. Therefore, all who wish to overcome the difficulties of painting from Nature, must persevere under continual practice until they become quite familiar with their colours, and know, in short, the full extent of their capabilities. When this has been acquired, together with a readiness of execution, there need not be any embarrassment in finding a subject to paint from. The motive that guided us in this lesson has been to direct the attention of our pupils to other subjects besides that of landscape, from which may be derived many valuable lessons upon colouring. We know of none better capable of helping them in their studies than those which are usually termed "still life;" their variety affords abundant choice, in which both form and colour may be studied with equal advantage. Fruits, flowers, vegetables, articles of ornament and dress, culinary utensils, and number LESSONS IN GREEK.-LI. THE VOICES OF THE VERB. WE have seen that the verb in Greek appears in three voicesactive, middle, and passive. The connection of these with the subject may be shown as follows:-In the active, the subject conveys the action, as mais TUTTEI, the boy strikes; in the passive, the subject receives the action from an object, as á παις τύπτεται ύπο του πατρος, the boy is struck BY HIS FATHER; while in the middle the subject acts on itself, as ó mais TUTTETUL, the boy STRIKES HIMSELF. The second modification of the form of verbs is owing to the fact that every affirmation has respect to time-the time when the declared fact took place. But time is grammatically expressed by tense. Accordingly, we must consider the Greek verb in its tenses. Further, declarations or affirmations may be made in different ways. We may declare a fact simply and independently, and we may declare one fact in relation to another. Hence the manner in which affirmations are made demands attention, and so we are led to study the verb in its moods. The active voice has two modifications, and may appear as either transitive or intransitive: for example-active transitive, & TAIS TUTTEL (Tov adeλpov), the boy STRIKES (HIS BROTHER); active intransitive, & Tais Tрexel, the boy RUNS. In the first instance the verb is transitive as well as active, because the action passes from the subject to an object. In the second instance the verb is intransitive, since it has no object, but the action limits itself to the subject. The form of the verbs shows that they are both in the active voice. Generally every verb has either a transitive or an intransitive signification. Many verbs combine the two meanings, being sometimes transitive and sometimes intransitive. When the two imports unite in one verb, either the two run through all the forms, or they are united, so that one signification belongs to this form, and the other signification belongs to that form. Of the verbs, however, in which the two-namely, the transi. tive and the intransitive import-run through all the tenses, take as examples exe, to hold; reiei, to stretch; Kλwew, to lean; σтpepew, to turn; and rраTTEW, to do. Many transitive verbs become intransitive by combination with prepositions, as πроσкроve, to dash against; aña\\attew, to depart; μeraßaλλew, to change; enididovai, to increase. Many verbs which have only a transitive meaning become intransitive by the omission of an easily understood object; as TeλEUTAV (scil. Tov Biov), to end (life), to die; πposexew (understanding Tov vovv), literally, to apply (one's mind) to. The ensuing are the forms to which the intransitive meaning chiefly belongs-namely, the second perfect and its derivative the second pluperfect, which are intransitive not merely in the verbs which in the present have both significations, but also in other verbs which in the other tenses are employed only transi tively. Of the first kind take as examples, Terpaya, I have found myself, I am; avewya, I am open. As examples of the. second sort take eypnyopa, I am awakened, I watch; pepnra, I rage; Teжoida, I trust. The intransitive import attaches also to the second norist, the perfect and the pluperfect of iornμi, I place; dvw, I enclose; puw, I beget; which in the tenses mentioned signify I stand, I enter, I arise. If, with intransitive verbs, the object is named by which the condition expressed in the verb is occasioned, then, as in the passive, that object is put in the genitive with a preposition; as Toλа Kaка еτаbоμеν Vπо TŴY ANσтWV, we have SUFFERED mang evil things FROM ROBBERS. If a thing or a circumstance is given with the passive as the occasion of the act spoken of in the verb, then the object is generally in the dative without a preposition, as voow elapμevOL Flory of Aonvalol, the Athenians were destroyed by the plague. Also the person by whom a condition is brought about stands with a passive verb, sometimes in the dative without a preposition, most frequently with the perfect and the pluperfect, and regularly with the verbal adjective; as aσkηтeov EσTI σo apeтn, virtue must be practised by you. Every passive predicate may be converted into an active one, or derived from an active one. In this change the object in the active representation becomes the subject in the passive : The present indicates that the action or condition of the verb is forming, or realising itself; it consequently denotes continuance, and gives the idea in a general and unlimited manner; thus, Tarтa тa ayala didwσi & Oeos, God gives all good things. In narrative the writer often transfers past events to present time, and relates them as if now actually proceeding. This is called the historic present (præsens historicum). The historic present gives a liveliness to the style, and is common with the Greek authors. When a past event may in itself or in its consequences be considered as coming down to the present, it is often spoken of by the Greeks in the present. Thus we find in the present ακούω, πυνθανομαι, μανθάνω, γιγνωσκω, though this use is not limited to these verbs: for example, Oεμισтокλeа OVK AKOVELS If, however, a verb in the active voice takes two objects, only avopa ayalov ovтa; do you not hear (for have you not heard) one of them can appear as subject in the passive. The Greeks subjoined to intransitive verbs in the accusative the abstract object implied in the verb, saying, for instance, to live a life, βιον βιώναι. From this active a passive was formed, as Bios BeẞiwTai, a life has been lived. Agreeably to this usage they employed the verbal adjective, as Bios BiwTos, liveable life. The middle form of the verb presents the subject as active, but at the same time as acted on by its own act. Some verbs altogether want the active form, and, appearing only in the middle, have the reflex or intransitive signification. These are called deponents, because they have laid down the active form. These deponents may be divided into two classes, middle deponents and passive deponents. The middle deponents are those which form their aorist with a middle form, as aioθανομαι, I perceive, aor. ᾔσθόμην. The passive deponents are those which form their aorist with a passive form, as dvvauai, I am able, aor. εδυνήθην. For the expression of external circumstances, the Greeks use the middle voice in its reflex sense but sparingly. Examples of such usage are-λoveola, to wash one's self, to bathe; yvμvaceola, to exercise one's self, to contend; oraobai, to place one's self, to stand. Very common is the use of the reflective middle, when a condition of mind is represented, and the subject appears as in his own spirit producing a result, or as acting on his own internal state. Thus Tapexe means to afford, to offer, and wapexeobaι to offer or give one's self, to present from one's self, of one's own accord, from one's own resources. The middle voice is often used to express that which is done in some way for or to the subject, for the benefit or interest or at the command of the subject. This reference to the subject is sometimes strengthened by the reflective pronoun, as are Ebeто voμov, he made a law for himself. The middle voice is used mediately in these examples :-μ0wσaolai oikiar, to take a house ; άγεσθαι γυναικα, to marry a wife; μεταπέμπεσθαι τινα, το send for a person; aμvveobai, to guard one's self against, punish. The use of the middle voice, in contrast with the active, may be illustrated in the verb Tievai, as Tideval vouovs, to establish or give laws (the act of the legislator), and Tieσla voμovs, to pass or enact laws (the act of the legislature or people). THE TENSES OF THE VERB. Every act has a relation to time. Time is conceived of in three ways-the present, the past, the future. Tense, as corresponding to time, must have the same divisions, though in some languages the tenses do not fully correspond to the three modifications of time; for instance, in English we have not a future tense, and are obliged to express future time by the aid of auxiliary verbs. The exact import of the tenses appears best in the indicative mood. If we conceive of time in the present, we have the condition (or action) of the verb as taking an actual shape, the present; as completed, the perfect; as coming on, the periphrastic future, formed by μeλλw and the infinitive. If we conceive of time in the past, we have the condition of the verb as taking an actual shape, the imperfect; as completed, the pluperfect; as coming on, the periphrastic future, formed by εμελλον and the infinitive. If we conceive of time in the future, we have the condition of the verb as taking an actual shape, the ordinary future; as completed, the future perfect or third future; as coming on, the periphrastic future, formed by μeλλŋow and the infinitive. that Themistocles was a good man? 'Hкw, I have come, and oixoμai, I have left, are regularly used in a kind of perfect signification, while many other verbs, besides their ordinary meaning, have an import which can be best rendered into English by a perfect; as pevyw, I flee, I have been accused, I have been banished; vikw, I conquer, I am a conqueror, that is, I have conquered. Future events also may be spoken of as present, while an additional degree of certainty is given to them. Especially are epxouai and Toрevouaι thus used. Elu is regularly employed with a future signification. The perfect presents the action or condition of the verb as completed in regard to the present; the pluperfect presents the action or condition of the verb as completed in regard to the past. The use of both tenses, however, undergoes in Greek a considerable limitation by means of the aorist. As the conclusion of an act has commonly a result, the perfect, which denotes the conclusion, may denote also the result. And as the result, if a completed act comes down to or near the present, so the perfect may signify that which is, or that which lately was: for example, Twv TоINTWV TIVES ÚTOθηκας ὡς χρη ζην καταλελοιπασιν, some of the poets have left directions how we ought to live. They have left them, and here they are; thus the perfect has the force of a present. Hence this form has been called "a present-perfect," being past in act but present in consequence. In Greek this use of the perfect is common. Accordingly the perfect signifies the result of the action of the present, and is sometimes best represented in English by another verb; thus kekтnμal, I possess, as expressive of the result of Kтaoμai, I acquire; oida, I know, the result of edw, I see. So μεμνημαι, I remember; dedoika (or dedia), I fear. As the perfect in these verbs has the force of a present, so the pluperfect has the force of a simple past or an imperfect; thus, EKEKλnμny, I was called, or I bore the name; ndew, I knew. The imperfect represents the action or condition of the verb as forming itself in the past, and so describes a past event in its progress and continuance in time. The imperfect may thus denote continuance, an habitual state, as well as repetition, in the past. The aorist presents the action or condition of the verb as belonging to the past, without extension or limitation. On this account the aorist is specifically the narrative tense-the tense for reporting events as so many vanishing points in past time. The corresponding English tense is the simple preterite or the past, as he read, they gave. If during the narration events are spoken of in their continuance, the imperfect is employed in Greek; and if events are introduced with their consequences in the present, then the perfect is used; as Aorist.-Oi 'Eaλnves ενίκησαν τους Πέρσας, In propositions which in English set forth general truths or facts which arise from common experience, the Greeks also employ the aorist to indicate a single fact or observation; as Toxλа avoрwπоis пара yvwμnv eñeσe, many things happen to men contrary to their expectation. The future declares that the act or condition will take place in time to come. The periphrastic future, formed with parts of μAA and the infinitive present, future, or aorist, is to be distinguished from the simple future. The latter is a future |