privileges, whenever he demanded from them a grant in aid. The burden of the crusades fell upon the burgher class, and during their continuance the demand for an aid was often repeated, with growing power on the part of the traders to make terms, and with lessening capacity on the part of the barons to resist. Towards the end of the period, the barons were reduced in numbers and resources; the kingly power had increased; but there had arisen a more enlightened and opulent middle class, by whom the future of Europe was destined to be controlled. Briefly, the crusades are memorable for the blow given to feudalism; for the dignity conferred on manual labour; for the assertion of municipal rights; and for the recognition of a new power in the state that of personal property, in contradistinction to the ownership of land held by the different feudal

tenures.

CHAPTER XXII.-COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY OF FRANCE. THE history of commerce and industry in France during the Middle Ages resolves itself, as in Italy, into the history of separate towns, rather than that of a united kingdom. These towns were situated in the maritime provinces bordering respectively on the Mediterranean Sea, the Bay of Biscay, and the English Channel. The Mediterranean division contained three commercial towns, Marseilles, Aigues-Mortes, and Montpelier, with a large number of towns engaged in woollen manufactures in the province of Languedoc.

Marseilles has always been the chief commercial city and seaport of France. It was originally a Greek colony under the name of Massilia, a flourishing rival for a long while of Carthage; and during even the worst of the Dark Ages, it maintained its, commercial character. Its convenience as a port for the Holy Land caused many of the crusaders to choose it for their point of departure. The municipal authorities encouraged this passen. ger traffic by rigid laws of inspection, to ensure the comfort and proper treatment of the voyagers. Such restrictions applied to an exceptional trade were of great service, but failed of their purpose when the authorities attempted to legislate in a similar way for the permanent commerce of the town. With the hope of fostering the growth of native industries, they made it illegal to import foreign commodities, but thereby they diminished both their foreign trade and their home manufactures. The making of coarse woollens could alone be said to be flourishing. The wool was obtained from the Barbary states, and it employed the looms of all Provence as well as of the city of Marseilles. The cloths were dyed of bright colours with logwood, madder, and carmine, and for their strength and durability found favour in Italy and Greece. The cultivation of the mulberry and the manufacture of silk were introduced with success, but attempts to raise the sugar-cane failed. Marseilles has grown in prosperity with each succeeding age. Its commerce and manufactures are now very great, and they promise to become still greater.

Aigues-Mortes was once a considerable harbour. Louis IX. sailed from this port on his crusade. It is situated amongst the salt of the Rhone marshes, and is now four miles inland. On account of the stagnant or dead waters by which it is surrounded, and whence comes the name (aquæ mortua), its climate is unhealthy. The marshes are, however, turned into a source of wealth by the manufacture of salt and potash. The distilling of brandy (eau de vie) similarly distinguished an adjacent town with the name of Aigues-Vives. The commerce of Aigues-Mortes was chiefly that which it derived as a depôt for spices and other Eastern goods, to be interchanged with the woollen and linen textures of the northern provinces of France. The port being undesirable as a residence, the factors and bankers transacted their business at Avignon, higher up the Rhone, where the warehouses of the Italian and other foreign merchants were also to be found.

The towns of the province of Languedoc were famous, and still remain so, for their silk and woollen manufactures, especially of those dyed scarlet, rose, and azure blue. Montpelier, Narbonne, Nismes, Beziers, Carcassonne, Perpignan, and Toulouse, were the chief industrial towns. Fairs were held at Beancaire and Montpelier, at which places the Florentines bought English wool and the Venetians obtained French cloths for their commerce in the Levant.

Still more important was the cloth trade of the provinces

adjoining Flanders, and in the district of France anciently called Armorica. Troyes, the capital of Champagne, was a manufacturing town in the fifth century, and a fair was established there at least as early as 1118. Known as the Remigius Market, this fair for 300 years grew in importance, and drew traders from every commercial state; German, Dutch, Flemish, Lombardian, Florentine, and Venetian merchants were invariably present. Troyes was the entrepôt of the manufactures of Champagne and also of the neighbouring provinces of Picardy, the Isle of France, and Normandy. The products of industry to be found there were of a very varied character, though none of them in value approached the textile fabrics.

The following list of towns includes the seats of the cloth industry in each province :Champagne.-Troyes, Chalons, Rheims, Provins, Sens, Vitry,

St. Dizier.

Isle of France.-Pontoise, St. Denis, Paris, Lagni, Senlis.
Normandy.-Rouen, Louviers, Bernai

Picardy.-St. Quentin, Aubenton, Amiens, Abbeville.
Troyes obtained cloth from the South Netherlands as largely
as from the French provinces. The following Flemish towns
were thus in commercial intercourse with Troyes :-Cambray,
Valenciennes, Maubeuge, Avesnes, in Hainault; Arras, Douai,
Lille, Tournay, Dixmuide, Ghent, Bruges, Ypres, in Artois and
Flanders; Malines, Brussels, Louvain, Brest, and Huy, in
Brabant and Liege.

Amongst the miscellaneous commodities reaching the markets at Troyes, were leathern goods from the south of France, and horses from Lombardy and Germany. Eastern produce from remoter parts, such as spices, formed a large part of the merchandise of the Venetian traders; for the French merchants at this time charged themselves with little business beyond what was brought to their shores.

Merchandise converging from so many places upon Troyes, made the town rich and influential. Two causes combined at length to diminish its trade: first, merchants were deterred by the unwise imposition of heavy dues from bringing their goods; and next, in 1298, when the overland route for Oriental commerce, by way of Syria and Constantinople, was closed to the Venetians, and they re-opened the old route through Egypt, goods were conveyed by sea direct to England and the Netherlands, without passing through France. Bruges was the first of the Flemish cities thus favoured by direct intercourse with the East; Antwerp followed in 1318. Troyes clung to its privileges and prohibitions till it fell into utter decay; while other towns, till then insignificant, began to share its failing trade and profits. Charles VII. in 1445 conferred upon Lyons, a city much more conveniently situated for the trade of southern France, the privilege of holding three markets. Of the northern seaports, Harfleur, at the mouth of the Seine, was at this time the seat of a trade which attracted thither the Portuguese and Castilians.

Although the harbours of the western coast of France are admirably suited for commerce, their sea-trade did not attain any magnitude till long after Marseilles had risen to be an active and important port. The two principal ports were Bordeaux and La Rochelle.

Till the year 1312, when they were deprived of the immunities which they had previously enjoyed, the Templars conducted much of the trade of Rochelle. Its exports consisted largely of wine. The Flemings alone bought at this town 40,000 casks annually. One consigament, the vessels conveying which were captured by the English, consisted of 9,000 casks.

Bordeaux is an ancient city, having under the name of Burdigala been rebuilt by the Romans, A.D. 260, after its destruction by fire. It is well placed for foreign commerce, and it sent wine to England in 1302. Its traffic with the interior became developed from the facilities afforded it by the Garonne, the Dordogne, and their tributaries. The articles of commerce sent from Bordeaux increased in number enormously, until the city became second to Marseilles in commercial importance.

The French government of the period ordered foreign goods to be brought into the country in French vessels only, under the idea that navigation would thus be promoted, and the profits of the trade be confined entirely to citizens of France. But other results ensued; competition and emulation were weakened, and contraband traffic was encouraged.

PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.-VI.

APPLICATION OF TRIGONOMETRY TO MEASUREMENT. THE object of this lesson is rather to suggest than enumerate the practical uses of the science. Apart from its connection with Navigation upon which more will be said in the papers shortly to be devoted to that subject-Trigonometry is mainly employed in the practical work of measuring (1) heights and distances, (2) areas, and (3) contents of solids. By way of example we will take one or two of its simpler applications to the measurement of heights and distances, space forbidding even the enumeration of the many problems which may arise in measuring and surveying-most of which may, however, be solved, directly or indirectly, by the formula already arrived at.

A

Fig. 18.

B

PROBLEM I.-To find the height of an accessible object situated on a horizontal plane (Fig. 18). Let the tower, E C, be the object. Measure from it a convenient distance, ED, and observe the angle BAC. The right-angled triangle ABC can now be calculated (BCA B. tan. BAC; see Section X.), one side, A B (equal to E D), and one angle being known. To BC add E B, the height of the observer's eye above the horizontal plane, and we obtain the height of the tower.

EXERCISE 8.

1. A person, whose eye is 5 ft. 6 in. above the ground, having receded 125 ft. from the base of a tower, finds that its angular elevation is 52° 34'. Calculate its height.

2. From the other side of a street 42 ft. wide, I observe that the elevation of the front of a house is 49° 28'. What is the height of the house, the height of my eye being 5 ft.?

PROBLEM II.-To find the distance on a horizontal plane of an object of known height.

Let the tower in Fig. 18 be the object, and its distance from D-i.e., the length of A B-be the information sought. The angle BAC being found as before, this case differs from the preceding only in that a different side of the triangle is given, and it is calculated with equal ease by the means pointed out

in Section X.

and similarly, FB AB X

sin. a cos. B

sin. (8- α)

apart. At those stations I find the elevations to be 58° 14' and 36° 42′ respectively. The height of my eye, above the ground is 4ft. 6 in. What is the height of the steeple?

2. What is the height of a hill, its angle of elevation at the bottom being 52°, while 300 yds. from the bottom, measured horizontally, its elevation is found to be 28° 30' ?

A

Fig. 20.

C

F

If the nature of the ground prevents two observations being taken in line with the object, they may be taken as at A B in Fig. 20. Measure A B and the angles BA C, A B C, and F AC, which we will call a, B, and respectively. (The two former must be measured by a sextant). Then, since ACB supplement of a + B, .. sin. A CB = sin. (a + B); sin. B sin. (a+B) sin. ;

.. ACABX

But FC AC.

B

1. In order to ascertain the distance of a windmill on the opposite side of a river, I observe the angle between the windmill and a flagstaff, which is 356 yds. distant, and find it to be 53° 4. Proceeding to the flagstaff, I find the angle between the windmill and the first station to be 49° 10.

What is the distance of the windmill ?

2. Wanting to know the breadth of a river, I measure along the bank a base of 250 ft., the extremities of which we will call A and B. At the extremity A I find the angle made by в and a tree on the oppo site bank is 63° 31′; at the extremity в I find the angle between a and the tree is 57° 28'. What is the breadth of the river?

3. To find the distance of a battery from an outpost, I make 200 paces in a direction at right angles to the line which connects it with the outpost, and then find that it makes an angle of 67° 23′ with the outpost. How many paces is it distant from the latter?

PROBLEM V.-To find the distance from each other of two inaccessible objects (Fig. 22).

Let C and D be the objects. Measure a base line, A B, and observe the angles A B C, A B D, BA C, BAD. Calculate AC and AD as in the last problem. Then, since CAD = BAC — BA D, we have the necessary materials for calculating the Fig. 22. triangle ACD (Sec. XXI., par. 2). Hence we obtain the distance, C D.

EXERCISE 12.

1. To ascertain the distance between two batteries in an enemy's works, a base line of 500 yds. is measured, and the angles which each battery makes with the base-line are observed to be 118° 20′ and 46° 14′ at one extremity, and 88° 48′ and 33° 12′ at the other. distance apart?

What is their

There is an ingenious way of finding the converse of this

F B gives the distance of the object.

EXERCISE 10.

1. Wishing to ascertain the height of a church steeple, to which close access cannot be had, I select two stations in line with it, 52 yds.

upon C and D, the distance between the latter being known Assume A B = 1000; then, on that supposition, calculate cr without reference to its real value. Then, as the calculate value of CD is to the real value, so is 1000 to the real value of A B.

"there" in the like situation; as, es war Niemand hier, there was no one here; es kommen Leute, there are people coming.

(6.) The English forms, "he is a friend of mine," "it is a stable of ours," etc., cannot be literally rendered into German; for there we must say, er ist mein Freunt, he is my friend; or, er ist einer meiner Freunde, he is one of my friends, etc.

(7.) The definite article in German is often used where in English a possessive pronoun is required; as, er winkte ihm mit ter Hand, he beckoned to him with his (the) hand.

(8.) The datives of the personal pronouns are often in familiar style employed in a manner merely expletive; as. ich lobe mir den Rheinwein, I like Rhenish wine for me, i.e., I prefer Rhenish wine..

$ 135.-THE ADJECTIVES.

RULE.-Adjectives, when they precede their nouns (expressed or understood), agree with them in number, gender, and case; as, diese schöne Dame, this handsome lady; ein gütiger und gerechter Vater, a good and just father; ten zwölften dieses Monats, the twelfth (day) of this month, etc.

OBSERVATIONS.-(1.) This rule, of course, has reference to those adjectives which are used attributively; for predicative adjectives, it will be remembered, are not declined. For the several circumstances under which adjectives are varied in declension, consult §§ 27, 28, etc.

(2.) This rule applies equally to adjectives of all degrees of comparison; as bessere Bücher, better books; ter beste Wein, the best wine; bes besten Weines, of the best wine, etc. So, too, it applies equally to all classes of adjectives; as adjective pronouns, numerals, and participles.

(3.) The word "one," which in English so often supplies the place of a preceding noun after an adjective, cannot be translated literally into German; its office being rendered needless in the latter tongue by the terminations of declension.

(4.) So, also, the English "one's" is a proper equivalent of the German sein in such cases as the following: gibt es etwas Erleres, als seinen Feinden zu vergeben? is anything more noble than to forgive one's enemies?

(5.) When the same adjective is made to refer to several singular nouns differing in gender, it must be repeated with each and varied in form accordingly; as, ein gelehrter Sohn und eine gelehrte Tochter, a learned son and a learned daughter. The adjectives are also often repeated, though the nouns be all of the same gender.

§ 136.-THE VERBS.

RULE.-A verb must agree with its subject or nominative in number and person; as, jeter Augenblick ist kostbar, every moment is precious; tie Bäume blühen im Frühling, the trees bloom in spring.

OPSERVATIONS.-(1.) When the subject is the pronoun cẻ, tas, or tics, used indefinitely (see § 134. 1), the predicate, if a noun, determines the number and person of the verb; as, es find die Früchte Ihres Thuns, these are the fruits of your actions.

(2.) In the second person (singular and plural) of the imperative mood, the pronoun which forms the subject is commonly omitted; as gect hin und faget Johanni wieter, was Ihr sehet une hiret, go and tell John what ye see and hear.

(3.) When the verb has two or more singular subjects connected by unt, it is generally put in the plural; as, aß und Eifersucht sind heftige Leidenschaften, hatred and jealousy are violent passions.

(4.) When the subject is a collective noun, that is, one conveying the idea of many individuals taken together as unity, the verb must (generally) be in the singular; as, tas englische Volk hat große Freiheit, the English people have (has) great liberty. In a few cases only, as ein Paar, a pair; ein Menge, a number; cin Dugent, & dozen, the verb sometimes stands in the plural.

(5.) When a verb has several subjects, and they are of different persons, the verb agrees with the first rather than the second, and the second rather than the third; as, tu, tein Bruter und ich wolken frazieren gehen, thou, thy brother, and I will go take a walk; tu und tein Bruder vermöget viel, you and your brother avail much.

§ 137.-USES OF THE TENSES.

RULE. The present tense properly expresses what exists or is taking place at the time being; as, tie wahre Tapferkeit beschüßt ten Schwachen, true valour protects the weak.

OBSERVATIONS.-(1.) The present in German, as in other languages, is often, in lively narrative, employed in place of the imperfect; as, die Sonne geht (for ging) unter, da sicht (for ftant) er am Thor, xc., the sun goes down, when he stands at the gate, etc.

(2.) The present is not unfrequently used for the future, when the true time is sufficiently clear from the context, or when, for the sake of emphasis, a future event is regarded and treated as already certain; as, ich reise morgen ab, I start (that is, will start) to-morrow; ties Schloß ersteigen wir in dieser Nacht, this castle scale we (that is, will we scale) this very night; bald sehen Sie mich wieter, soon you (will) see me again; wer weiß, wer morgen über uns befiehlt, who knows who commands (that is, will command) us to-morrow?

(3.) It should be noted that the present is, moreover, the proper tense for the expression of general or universal truths or propositions; as, die Vögel fliegen in der Luft, birds fly in the air.

(4.) In English we have several forms of the present tense; as, I praise, I do praise, or I am praising. In German there is but one form (ich lobe) for the expression of these several shades of meaning.

(5.) The present, in connection with the adverb schon (already), often supplies the place of a perfect; as, wir wohnen schon sieben Jahre hier, already dwell we here (that is, have we dwelt) seven years.

(6.) In English we say often "I do walk," "I did walk," and the like, where the verb do (present and imperfect) is employed as an auxiliary. This cannot properly be done with the corresponding verb (thun, to do) in German.

KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN GERMAN.
EXERCISE 188 (Vol. IV., page 14).

1. In spite of the trouble which the teacher gave himself, the children would not make any sound progress. 2. He made considerable progress in the German language, after he had overcome the 3. He is without the most needful books. 4. A pocr first elements. family is often without the most necessary household furniture. 5. The tranquillity of this accused man rests on the consciousness of his innocence. 6. The captain told us yesterday, that the young Italian

had shot a ball through his head. 7. He shot a ball through the bear's head. 8. I prefer travelling by way of Bremen or Hamburg, instead of by way of Havre. 9. I prefer riding on horseback to walking, and riding in a coach to riding on horseback. 10. I am more comfortable 11. It is most agreeable to him in a warm room than in a cold one.

to be able to smoke his cigar after dinner. 12. To boys it is most

pleasing and also most healthy to take half an hour's walk after dinner.

13. I had an unpleasant sensation all the morning. 14. The princes of Germany have again usurped the government.. 15. The uncle contrived to usurp his nephews' property by degrees. 16. It is some time since I saw him. 17. Is it long since he fell ill ? 18. Yes, it is more than three weeks already. 19. Stay at home till I come to you; I shall call on you for a walk. 20. Death calls away not only the old man, but also very often the man in his prime, the youth, and the steamboat, I went to the landing-place for him. post-office this morning for this letter. 23. On my journey I stayed

child in the cradle. 21. As I knew that my friend would arrive by the 22. I called at the

at different inns, but I cannot praise any one of them particularly. 24. I generally call on my friends when I go to town.

EXERCISE 189 (Vol. IV., page 14).

1. Ich machte bessers Fortschritte in der deutschen Srrache, nachtem ich die ersten Anfangsgrünce überwunden hatte. 2. Der Onkel fucht tas er mögen seiner Neffen an sich zu reißen. 3. 3ft es lange, taß Ihr Frate frank wurte? 4. Nein, es ist nicht länger, als einige Tage. 5. Werten Sie zu Hause bleiben, bis ich bei Ihnen vorspreche? 6. Es ist mir ange. nehmer, einen Spaziergang auf das Land zu machen, als zu Hause zu spen 7. Wenn ich nach der Start gebe, so spreche ich gewöhnlich ber ein ea meiner Freunde ein. 8. Er zicht bas Studieren allen andern Beschäftigun» gen vor. 9. Ich ziche das Geben dem Reiten, und das Reiten rem area vor. 10. Während der Schlacht ritt der General die Reiben entlana, um seine Seltaten anzufeuern. 11. Kindern ist es gesund, wenn sie nach Schule frazieren gehen können. 12. Die Räuber rissen sich um die Beuk. welche sie ten Bürgern genommen hatten.

EXERCISE 190 (Vol. IV., page 68).

1. The creditors have compounded with the debtor at fifty per cert 2. The two merchants could not agree as to the price. 3. I have co pared the two together. 4. He has let the house to him for five years 5. The young man has hired himself out as servant, 6. It is sur