Bleiben, to ich bleibe, 2c. remain but always pleasing, describes the beauties of the place, and ex- Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull; Two other poets, from among a large number of obscurer names, demand mention, though we can only mention them. William Browne was the author of a series of pastoral poems of much merit, published under the name of "Britannia's Pastorals." Sir William Davenant enjoyed great fame as a dramatist and a poet. His chief poem is a long narrative poem of heroic achievements, "Gondibert." In its author's day this poem was very popular, as we know from the frequent allusions to it in contemporary writings. But it is now completely forgotten. ich blieb Braten, to ich brate, du ich briet roast Brechen, to ich breche, tu ich brach er Brennen, to ich brenne, 2c. ich brannte burn Bringen, to ich bringe, sc. ich brachte Denfen, to ich tenke, se. ich dachte thrash Dringen, (7) ich tringe, 2c. ich brang to press,to urge Dürfen, to be ich darf, tu ich durfte NOTE that in the following list many compound forms are not to receive 20. ich empfange, ich empfing tu emp fängst, er Empfehlen, to ich empfehle, ich empfahl ich emp empfiehl empfohlen recommend duempfiehlst, er empfiehlt Erbleichen, (3) ich erbleiche,se. sich erblich föhle ich erbliche erbleiche erblichen pale to select, ich erführe (er ich erkor (er ich erkühre erführe erkehren küre), 2c. ich beföhle befiehl befohlen to turn ich beslisse befleiße befliffen kohr) (erküre) (erküre) | (erkoren) Beißen. to ich beiße, sc. ich big bite ich begänne beginne begonnen Erlöschen, (9) ich biffe beiße guish press (by anxiety) Bergen, to ich berge, du ich barg conceal birgft,erbirgt geborgen Bersten, to ich berste, 2c. ich borst or ich bärste berste or geborsten Erschallen, to sich erschalle, 2c.sich_erscholl Erschrecken, ich erschrecke, ich erschrak frightened er erschrickt Erwägen, (1) ich erwäge, 2c. ich erwog Effen, to eat ich esse, du sich aß birst Fallen, to fall ich falle, du ich fiel er ich bante binde bitte Fechtest or (ficht) fichtst, er fech treat, to tet or ficht (6) Dingte is sometimes used in the imperfect, in the sense of hire. () For trang, brung was formerly in use. (8) Derived from bleichen, to whiten as in the sun, which is regular. () Like verlöschen and auslöchen, irregular only when intransitive. Löschen is always transitive and regular. (10) Irregular always as an intransitive verb, but regular when transitive. (1) More frequently used as a regular verb. (12) All the compounds of fahren are irregular except willfahren. (13) The forms ficng and fienge are obsolete. Gelten, (21) to ich gelte, du ich galt be worth, giltst, er gilt valid ich gediche gereihe gedichen ich ginge gehe gegangen es gelange gelinge gelungen ich gälte gilt gegolten Können, to ich kann, du ich konnte be able Kriechen, (30) ich krieche, sc. ich kroch to creep kannst, fann er ich könnte fönne gefonnt ich kroche krieche gekrochen (14) Fleugft and fleugt in the present, and fleug in the imperative, are forms used only in poetry. (15) Fleuchst, fleucht, and fleuch, poetical. (16) Fleußest, fleußt, and fleuß, poetical. (17) Sometimes regular, gährte. (18) Some writers prefer giebt, giebt, gieb, to gibst, gibt, gib. (19) Gediegen is but a strengthened adjective form of the past participle. (20) Gieng for ging is antiquated. (2) Formerly golt, gölte, were used in the imperfect indicative and subjunctive. Geneusest, geneußt, and imperative geneus, poetical; seldom used. (23) Geußest, geußt, and imperative geuß. See genießen. (24) Geleiten and begleiten are not derived from gleiten, but from leiten, and are therefore regular. (25) Now more frequently regular. (2) Handhaben is regular. LESSONS IN ASTRONOMY.—XVII. THE TRANSIT INSTRUMENT (continued)-THE EQUATORIAL. HAVING described in our last lesson the construction of the transit instrument, we have now to learn the mode of taking observations by means of it. To one side of the axis there is affixed a large circle, not shown in the engraving. This circle is accurately divided into degrees and fractions of a degree, and in some of the best instruments-as, for instance, that at Greenwich Observatory-several apertures are pierced through the pillar, and microscopes are placed in these so as to read very exactly the degree of the circle under them. When several readings are thus taken at different parts of the circle, errors arising from imperfect graduation or other causes are almost eliminated; and though in ordinary observations these are not of great moment, they materially impair more delicate ones. As the axis of the instrument is due east and west, the tube will of course point to a great circle passing through the north pole. If a star were situated exactly at this point we could easily direct the tube to it, and arrange the graduated circle so that it should then read 0°: as, however, the Pole star is not thus placed, we must observe carefully its' position when it crosses the meridian above the pole, and again when it makes its lower transit. The true place of the pole is, of course, midway between these points, and the circle is adjusted accordingly. If now we observe any star when it is on the meridian, we shall be able at once to measure its distance from the pole, and, by calculation, from the zenith. We have therefore one measure to fix its position; but, as we have seen, two are requisite to fix it definitely, since there may be a whole ring of stars at the same distance from the pole. The second measure is, however, easily obtained. In the observatory there is a clock made to indicate sidereal time—that is, the interval which elapses between two successive passages of the same star across the meridian is divided into twenty-four hours, and the clock is made to show these hours. It is then so adjusted as (27) Haute (regular) is used when cutting wood, carving stone, etc., are meant. (28) This verb is sometimes used as a regular verb. (29) Sometimes regular, klimmte. (30) Kreuchst, kreucht, kreuch, obsolete. Only poetically used. to indicate Oh. Om. Os. when the first point of Aries is on the meridian, and has of course passed round the twenty-four hours when that point returns to the meridian. Now right ascension is also measured from the first point in Aries, and hence we shall find that the clock will show us the right ascension of any star. In one hour the Earth has revolved through 15°, or Ath of 360°, and any star on the meridian then must have 15°, or 1 hour of right ascension; similarly, every 4 minutes of sidereal time indicates 1°. We see, then, that we can by a single observation with this instrument fix the place of any star. The graduated circle will give us its polar distance, and deducting this from 90° we have its declination; while by noting the time by the clock we at once learn its right ascension. Thus, if a star crossed the meridian at 13h. 13m. 30s., and its distance from the pole was 35°, we should at once know its declination was 55° N., and its right ascension 13h. 13m. 30s., or 198° 221. By observations of this kind the places of all the stars have been noted, and catalogues compiled giving their positions. In the eye-piece of the telescope there are usually five or seven equidistant and parallel wires, and by noting the time of the star passing over each, and taking the mean, we obtain the true time more exactly than by one observation taken singly. The only other kind of mounting for a telescope we can explain now is that known as the equatorial. With any ordi A similarly divided circle, F, is affixed to the lower end of the axis c c, and serves to give the right ascension of any object, the graduations on it reading from 1. to XXIV. hours. A slow-motion handle is usually affixed to this, similar to that shown at G. When the telescope is directed to any celestial object, the circle D may be clamped, as the star can be kept in the field by merely turning the circle F. In the best instruments a driving-clock, regulated to keep sidereal time, is added, and this causes the circle F to revolve in exactly 24 hours. All difficulty in adjusting the telescope is thus removed, as it constantly remains directed to the object without any alteration. It is by an arrangement of this kind that photographs of the heavenly bodies are taken. The mode of using the equatorial requires a little explanation. The circle F is so adjusted as to read 0° when the telescope is directed to the meridian, and a sidereal clock is required to note the time of making the observation. Now, suppose that we want to note the position of any star, we get it exactly in the centre of the field, for which pur pose fine cross-wires are usually placed in the eye-piece. We then note the exact time, and read off the two circles. Suppose, for example, that the time is 10h. 45m., and the reading of the declination circle is 37? 20', and that of the other 3h. 40m.; the star then had passed the meridian 3 hours and 40 minutes at the moment of making is its right ascension, while its declination is 37° 20′, and thus we know exactly its position. One great advantage which the equatorial possesses over the transit instrument arises from the fact that with it observations may be made in any part of the heavens, while with the other a star can only be observed when on the meridian. nary stand-as, for instance, that for the altazimuth instru- | the observation; it was on it, therefore, at 7h. 5m., and this ment-two motions are requisite to keep a star in the field of view; both the observer's hands are therefore constantly occupied with the handles intended to impart a slow motion to the telescope, since, owing to the rapid rotation of the Earth on its axis, the star would in a very few minutes pass out of the field of view if these adjustments were neglected. All the heavenly bodies, however, appear to revolve round the pole; hence if we mount our telescope so that its axis shall point towards the pole, one motion will be sufficient to enable us to follow a star and keep it in view. . One of the modes in which a telescope may be thus equatorially mounted is shown in Fig. 41. This is known as the English equatorial. The axis, instead of being vertical, is inclined to the horizon at such an angle that it points to the pole ; the inclination, therefore, has to vary with the latitude of the place. An instrument of this kind is, however, usually made a fixture, and then the lower end of the axis turns in a bearing set in a block of masonry, A, while a strong sup port, B, bent over at the upper part, carries the other end. A different mode of mounting an equatorial is represented in Fig. 42. This instrument, which is called the "star-finder," is mounted on the German, or Fraunhofer's system, which is that more usually adopted. The advantages it possesses over the English form are that stars near the pole may be observed with it, which the axis in the other prevents; and further, that only one support is required, and thus there is far less difficulty in fixing it accurately. The instrument shown here is portable, but in observatories the larger instruments mounted on the German plan are usually fixed to stone pedestals. To nearly all telescopes of high power, a small one is usually affixed to serve as a finder, H (Fig. 41). The power of this is but small, but it takes in a large field, the centre of which is marked by means of cross-wires, and it is so adjusted that when the star is thus in the centre of its field, it is also in the centre of the field of the large instrument. In all powerful instru ments the extent of sky seen at one time is very small, and therefore considerable difficulty would be experienced in finding any required star were it not for the finder. There are many other instruments used by the astronomer, as the mural circle, the zenith-sector, etc., but we must not stay to notice them here. They consist for the most part of telescopes mounted in a peculiar way for some special purpose. return. LESSONS IN BOTANY.-XLVIII. SECTION CXXIII.-FUNGI (concluded). 325 DR. BADHAM, the author from whom we have so frequently To the list given above, we must add many more. There is the ergot (Ergotatia abortans), a species which infests grasses and corn. When developed in the latter, it produces the most dreadful disease in those who unfortunately partake of the infected grain. It is chiefly found in rye, but happily not very frequently met with in this country. This little fungus, though 80 dangerous in its effects when eaten, is nevertheless invaluable for its medicinal uses. It is a little, cylindrical, hornshaped body; purpleblack without, and white or purplish in side. Whether the injury to human life of which we have spoken is caused by the fungus itself, or by the decomposed and corrupted state of the corn to which it belongs, is still a matter 321 two species of this genus that are almost equally dreaded by the farmer; one called the Smut (Uredo segetum), the other, the Bunt (Uredo caries). The former of these takes its rise within the glume of living plants, and grows with such rapidity as speedily to fill the interior space and burst through the epidermis, when it appears like a profuse black dust, which, if microscopically 312 313 311 319 322 317 324 320 examined, is found to consist of minute, perfectly spherical sporules. Withering says of this species: "It consists of very minute, egg-shaped, stemless capsules, at first white, but the thin white soon bursting, it pours out a quantity of brown-black powder, mixed with wool-like fibres." in The other species, Uredo caries (Fig. 311), 314 is very common wheat, and exceedingly injurious, as it not only destroys the ear on which it grows, but every grain with which the infected individuals come in contact. It is included within the germ of the wheat, and the spores, which are exactly spherical, are longer than those of the abovenamed species (Uredo segetum), and quite black. When crushed they emit a most fetid odour, which is communicated to the whole sample of wheat with which the bunty grains are associated. Mr. Berkley says of all the corn-infecting fungi: "The growth of these parasites depends so much on accidental circumstances, that it is impossible for the most experienced cultivators to guard against it entirely; but the evil is greatly lessened by careful choice of seed, and by steeping it in solutions of different substances, which destroy the vegetative power of the sporidia of these parasites," etc. 311. THE BUNT (UREDO CARIES). 312. WEEAT STRAW, NATURAL SIZE, INFECTED WITH PUC- LATUS. 321. NEMASPORA CARPINI. 322. PHACIDIUM CORONATUM; a, FUNGUS, MAGNIFIED. of question amongst the learned, and one on which we can The genera which chiefly affect the cereal produce of our land are the Uredines and Puccinia. The former genus takes its name from uro, a Latin word, signifying "I barn," or "scorch," the discolorations and spots on the plants infested by these fungi having been formerly attributed to blasts or injuries caused by the atmosphere or the heavenly bodies. There are VOL. VI. The other genus, Puccinia, is of as evil a nature as the Uredines. The disease termed the mildew in wheat is produced by one of these (Puccinia graminis, Fig. 312), a fungus so diminutive that a single stoma (or pore in a stem or leaf), invisible to an ordinary eye, will produce from twenty to forty of these fungi; and each of these exquisitely minute plants will bring forth at least a hundred spores or seeds. The seeds are not much heavier than air; and it may easily be conceived that even a single stem of wheat or grass, when beset with these mischievous parasites, will not be long 133 in infecting all the corn, not only in the field where the injured wheat grows, but in all those adjacent to it. The first appearance of this blight is usually in the spring, or early in the summer, when it arises in the form of orangecoloured streaks, which afterwards assume a deep chocolatebrown. The tufts of this fungus are dense and often confluent, and forming long parallel lines (Fig. 314). The spores are contained in a tubercular, double-celled case, and are black: this case is supported by a filiform peduncle or stem, as seen in Fig. 313. But it is not on our corn-fields only that a plague of fungi rests; these little Puccinic attack the leaves of plum and other fruit trees, devour the fluids of our bean plants, and scatter themselves in destructive armies over our raspberry bushes and our rose beds (Figs. 315 and 316). There are some forty or more species which spread themselves in all directions on the leaves and stems of our plants and flowers, nor ever cease their ravages until they have destroyed the vitality of whatever part they touch. But we must now, in this our concluding lesson on the science of Botany, turn to another class of fungi-those which beset our dainties under the name of mould. The following affords an interesting account of this production :- If, during the warm weather, we put aside a bit of bread, or a slice of apple, pear, melon, or a turnip or potato-peeling, if nothing better is at hand, we shall find in a few days that all those substances will have assumed a mouldy appearance. Take a little of this mould gently off on the point of a penknife, and subject it to the microscope; you see in the moulded bread a grove of tall stalks, each with a round head slightly flattened-in short, a mushroom in miniature. This is the Mucor mucedo (Fig. 318), the fungus of the bread-mould. While fresh and young, they are of a beautiful milk-white colour; gradually they assume a yellowish tinge. The stalks are so transparent as, under a good magnifying power, to show the cellular structure inside; the bulb also now exhibits, under a thin bark or skin, a number of minute, circular bodies, all arranged in a compact form: these are the spores or seeds. After a day or two more, the fungi begin to ripen, and assume a brownish tint; the bulbs blacken, the skin bursts, and innumerable spores are scattered about, many floating away in the air. This forest of mould, like larger ones, is liable to accidents. You may see in one corner, for instance, that the bit of bread forming the soil has cracked; thus a fungus has been loosened at the root, and it falls down, we may suppose, with a crash, though we still desiderate instruments to magnify and make audible the sound. Nevertheless, the effects of the fall are visible in the breaking down of neighbouring stems, and in the premature scattering of the seed. You may see, too, sometimes the scattered seeds collect upon one or two plants, and, enveloping them, entirely destroy their vitality, and thus cause old, rotten-looking stumps." But it must not be understood that the mouldiness which we find on our eatables is always a crop of the same species of fungus, or even of different species of the same genus. It is not so. The kinds which infest the apple and the pear are different, and those which "rot and then fatten on" our grapes, plums, and raspberries, are all different from each other. Then there are other kinds which float in our fermented liquors; whilst others, again, are found within the nutshell; and even within the innermost cavities of the walnut. Some, "like leeches, stick to the bulbs of plants, and suck them dry;' whilst others, not content with a vegetable diet, lay hold of the hoofs of horses and the horns of cattle; nay, worse and worse may be said; for instances have been known of the lungs and other organs of human beings having been beset by these alldestructive little beings. It is also recorded that it is a rare thing to find a mouth, whether of man or woman, where the teeth are not more or less the habitats of these vegetables, which, it is said, can be kept off only by the free use of a wellsoaped tooth-brush. Fungi not only prey on objects which are members of other families than their own, but they unscrupulously devour each other. Many of the Pileati have parasitic fungi, which attach themselves solely to them, never attacking any other species. One sort settles itself on dried Agarics; another only on moist, decaying ones; whilst a third devours only the flesh of a particular Boletus. Dr. Badham says: "Few minute objects are more beautiful than these mucidinous fungi fungorum. A common one besets the back of some of the Russula in decay, spreading over it, especially if the weather be moist, like thin flocks of light wool, presenting on the second day a bluish tint on the surface. Under a powerful magnifier, myriads of little glass-like stalks are brought into view, which bifurcate again and again, each ultimate head ending in a semilucent head, or button, at first blue, and afterwards black; which, when it comes to burst, scatters the spores, which are then (under the microscope) seen adhering to the sides of the delicate filamentary stalks, like so many minute limpets. There is a very beautiful fungus called the pencilled mould (Aspergilla penicillatus, Fig. 317), which clusters its pretty beaded tassels on the dried plants in our herbariums. This little plant consists of a stem and a cluster of sporules at the top, not unlike a brush with a handle. Aspergillus is the name of the brush with which the holy water is sprinkled in Roman Catholic churches, and from this resemblance the genus takes its name. Namaspora Carpini (Fig. 321) is another curious species. This infests the dead wood of the hornbeam, its singular black spores escaping from their flat cases, and thrusting themselves upwards in the form of tendrils. Then there are the many species of Sphæria, which raise their little button-like forms on the branches of trees, and stud them over with sphere-like gems, some yellow, others scarlet, brown, black, orange, white, crimson, and a hundred other tints of richest dye." Sometimes these wonderfully varied little fungi are sessile on the substance they have selected for their habitat, as in Figs. 324, 325, and 326; in others they are raised on stalks. Some have smooth visible orifices, through which the spores escape; in others these openings are hairy; and in some species they are not visible at all. Besides frequenting living plants, and closely besetting their leaves and branches, fungi of this genus are found abundantly on the bark of dead branches, and even on the wood where the bark has been removed. They frequent, also, the flock of Agarics; and one species, the nest-like Sphæria, is found in the little hollows of bean-roots; whilst others cluster on apples that are lying on the ground, the stems of reeds, or even on the naked earth. There are some species which take up their abode on, and obtain their sustenance from dead larvæ, pupæ, and spiders' eggs; whilst one, cannibal-like, the red parasitic Sphæria, sucks the blood of some of the species of its own genus. So numerous are the species which rank under this genus, that 201 are catalogued by Berkley. Racodium cellare, the mouse-skin byssus, is the fungus which festoons and covers the walls of our wine-cellars. For specimens, Badham refers us to the "London Docks, passim, where he pays his unwelcome visits, and is in even worse odour than the excisemen." Loudon tells us that it takes its name from a word "used among the Greeks" for a worthless, worn-out, ragged garment, which has been applied to the present genus in allusion to the dirty, interwoven, cloth-like substance with which it clothes whatever it grows on. Racodium cellare is the black substance which overruns the bottles of the wine-merchant, and which often hangs in long thick festoons from the sides and roof of his wine-cellars. There is a very curious species of fungus which is found overspreading the thing on which it grows like froth. Withering, on the authority of Stackhouse, thus describes it:-"Its first appearance is like custard spilt upon the grass or leaves. This soon becomes frothy, and then contracts around the blades of grass or leaves in the form of little tubercles united together. On examining it in its different stages under the microscope, it first appeared like a cluster of bubbles, irregularly shaped, and melting into one another. In the second stage it appeared imbricated, or tiled, with open cells, the edges of the cells beauti fully waved. A blackish powdery matter, on the surface of the cells, now gives the plant a greyish cast. In the third stage, the wavy imbrication disappears, and the plant settles with minute tubercles united together. Some of these are closed; but many of them appear as if torn open, and out of the cavity emerge little downy strings, with irregular-shaped terminations, and other similar irregular bodies on the same strings, like the heads of some of the genus Mucor." We have seen that some of the fungus tribe are capable of being turned to important uses as a nutritious and wholesome article of diet, and that others have medicinal properties which render them highly valuable. One kind is employed in making ink, |