protected the émigrés. After trial (April 2) he was condemned to death with Danton, Desmoulins, and others. While awaiting the hour of execution he passed the time in reading J. J. Rousseau. He had anticipated death by the guillotine for many months, and finally met it with indifference. Among his best works are his Visite à Buffon (Paris, 1785), and Théorie de l'ambition (1802), which was written during his last imprisonment. HERBARIUM, a collection of dried plants. The stems and leaves or the flowers are carefully pressed between sheets of paper, to one of which they are sometimes glued or otherwise secured. The sheets are often bound in book form. In this way large collections of great scientific interest may be preserved in small compass. Among the most famous collections of this kind are, that in the museum at Paris, the imperial collection of Vienna, that of Linnæus now in London, and that of the British museum, formerly belonging to Sir Joseph Banks. HERBART, JOHANN FRIEDRICH, a German philosopher, born in Oldenburg, May 4, 1776, died in Göttingen, Aug. 14, 1841. He was educated at Jena, at the age of 12 was familiar with the systems of Wolf and Kant, and after ward studied the lectures of Fichte with enthusiasm, but began to differ from his new master before leaving the univresity. After teaching at Bern, where he was intimate with Pestalozzi, and wrote a treatise on his system of education, he went in 1802 to Göttingen, where he delivered private lectures on philosophy, till in 1805 he was appointed extraordinary professor. In 1809 he accepted the chair of philosophy at Königsberg, whence he was recalled in 1833 to Göttingen with the dignities of titular professor of philosophy and aulic councillor, which he held till his death. He published the various parts of his system only at long in tervals, and gradually became the head of a school whose principal seats were at Göttingen and Leipsic. His philosophy was a reaction against the reigning idealism, and contains at once the empiricism of Locke and Condillac, the monadism of Leibnitz, the criticism of Kant, and the mathematical idealism of Bardili, with proofs throughout of his own acuteness and originality. The basis of all philosophy, according to him, is the whole sum of the phenomena that pass through the human mind, the whole mass of our ordinary convictions. These convictions involve the most palpable errors, and are at once refuted by the reason. It is the task of philosophy to so elaborate and interpret the conflicting ideas of experience and reason as to eliminate the contradictions between them and to leave a clear view of truth. We have 3 fundamental notions, viz., of thing, matter, and mind, each of which involves a separate contradiction, and points to a distinct department of metaphysics, respectively to ontology, synechology, and eidology. We perceive a thing as a unity, though the reason finds nothing but a collection of properties. We contemplate matter as an ob ject existing in space, though it consists of atoms infinitely divisible, which therefore in their ultimate form can fill no space at all. We feel the mind to be one, yet it is conscious of an ever-changing multiplicity and diversity of states and feelings. The instrument with which Herbart reconciles these contradictions is what he terms reals (Realen), which resemble the atoms of the Eleatic theory and the monads of Leibnitz. The real or monad is the ultimate fact, which cannot be denied; it is at once absolute being and absolute position. A thing, instead of being simple, is composed of many of these separate and independent essences, which are all absolutely the same. To explain, therefore, the various characteristics presented by different things, he introduced his doctrine of accidental views, a term borrowed from mathematics, showing that though the essences remain the same they may appear different according to their relations, as the same line may be considered as radius or as tangent, and a tone as harmonious or discordant. Matter, being composed of spaceless monads, is immaterial, and space is therefore objectively unreal. But though each monad is a mathematical point, expressing simply locality and no space, if several of them be brought together in the same direction, we get the idea of a line, and may thus complete what he terms an "intelligible space" in its 3 directions. Space, as also time and motion, only expresses a relation in which objects stand to each. other. The soul is a monad, simple, eternal, and indissoluble, and Herbart combats the psychologists who ascribe to it various powers and faculties. The causes of its different states are the relations in which it stands with other monads which press against it and try to represent themselves in it from different sides, consciousness being the sum of these representations. If the other monads are driven back and work in the darkness while they wait to mirror themselves on the consciousness, they are feelings. Feeling becomes desire as in its struggle forward it begins to aim at success, and desire becomes will when united with the hope of success. Throughout this mechanical theory of the soul every thing is calculated according to the doctrine of statics. The character and conduct of a man will depend upon the constant reflection in his consciousness of a certain number of monads, while others but dimly appear or are stopped at the threshold. Having thus completed the province of theoretical philosophy, he makes a transition to faith, as the ground of our religious conceptions, nearly identical with that of Kant from the pure to the practical reason. His moral philosophy is grounded entirely upon aesthetic judgments. The principal disciples of Herbart are Röer, Allihn, Drobisch, Hartenstein, Strümpell, Exner, Thilo, Volkmann, and Weitz. His minor philosophical writings, with a biography by Hartenstein, were published at Leipsic (3 vols., 1841-3); his complete works were edited by Hartenstein (12 vols., Leipsic, 1850–52). HERBELOT, BARTHÉLEMY D', a French orientalist, born in Paris, Dec. 4, 1625, died there, Dec. 8, 1695. He acquired a knowledge of Hebrew, Arabic, Syriac, Persian, and Turkish, and twice visited Italy to obtain instruction from some of the orientals who frequented Genoa, Leghorn, and Venice. In the last years of his life he was professor of Syriac at the college de France. He left several inedited works, of which the Bibliothèque orientale, ou dictionnaire universel, contenant tout ce qui fait connaître les peuples de l'Orient (fol., Paris, 1697), was published two years after his death. HERBERT, EDWARD, Baron Herbert of Cherbury, an English diplomatist and philosopher, born in Montgomery, Wales, in 1581, died in London, Aug. 20, 1648. He was married at 15, completed his education at Oxford, and in 1600 went to London, where he was presented to Queen Elizabeth. On the accession of James I. he was made a knight of the bath. In 1608 he went to the continent, and visited France. In 1610 he joined the English auxiliaries in the Netherlands under the command of Maurice of Nassau, prince of Orange, and served in the siege of Juliers. In 1614, under the same commander, he served in a second campaign against the Spaniards. He distinguished himself in these wars by great intrepidity and daring. He then made a journey to Italy, where the duke of Savoy intrusted him with the guidance of 4,000 Languedoc Protestants into Piedmont. He was arrested under the charge of recruiting for the duke, but was soon set at liberty. In 1616 he was appointed by King James ambassador extraordinary to France, to renew the alliance between France and England. Very sensitive on all points of honor, he involved himself in many difficulties, and especially offended the duke de Luynes, a favorite of the king, at whose instigation he was recalled to England. On the death of De Luynes (1621) he was sent again to France, and while there published his first work, Tractatus de Veritate (Paris, 1624). In 1625 he returned to England, and was created baron of Castle Island in the peerage of Ireland, and from this time devoted himself entirely to the duties of his station and to literature. In 1629 he was elevated to the English peerage, under the title of Baron Herbert of Cherbury. He was an original thinker, and, professing to put his hopes in God, he was still believed to be without religion; indeed he was ranked by some among materialists and atheists. He was attacked violently both for his religion and his philosophy. Hobbes was one of the most powerful of his opponents. Leland, in his review of the deistical writers of England of the 17th and 18th centuries, assigns to Lord Herbert a prominent place among them. Channing says his deism has much in common with Christian Unitarianism. In the disturbances in the reign of Charles I. he first sided with parliament, and afterward with the king. Among his works, beside that mentioned above, are: De Religione Gentilium, Errorumque apud eos Causis (1656); Expeditio (Buckinghami Ducis) in Ream Insulam (1656); and the "Life and Reign of King Henry VIII." (1672), which last is the best known of his works. His autobiography was printed by Horace Walpole in 1764. HERBERT, GEORGE, an English clergyman and poet, 5th brother of the preceding, born at Montgomery castle, Wales, April 3, 1593, died in Bemerton, England, in Feb. 1632. He was educated at Westminster and at Trinity college, Cambridge, elected fellow of the college in 1615, and in 1619 public orator, which was in those days a great honor. He did not however pass much of his time at Cambridge, but was generally an attendant of the court. King James, whose favor he had gained by an elegant letter to him in Latin, presented him with a sinecure office worth £120 a year. The death of two of his most powerful friends, the duke of Richmond and the marquis of Hamilton, soon followed by that of the king, induced him to take holy orders. He was made by Bishop Williams prebendary of Leighton Bromswold, or Layton Ecclesia, in 1626. In 1630 Charles I., at the request of the earl of Pembroke, presented him with the living of Bemerton, near Salisbury, and here he remained till his death. As a pastor he was most exemplary and zealous, and he was generally known as "holy George Herbert." His verses are quaint and full of imagery, but with many beautiful thoughts and holy precepts. They are of the same school as those of Quarles and Donne. George Herbert was the intimate friend of Sir Henry Wotton, Dr. Donne, and Lord Bacon. Indeed the latter, whose acquaintance he made at Cambridge, is said to have had so high an opinion of his judgment as to have submitted his works to him before publishing them. Herbert's principal works are: "The Temple; Sacred Poems and Private Ejaculations" (Cambridge, 1631); "Outlandish Proverbs, Sentences, &c." (London, 1640); "Quadripartit Devotions" (1647); "The Priest to the Temple, or the Character of a Country Parson" (1647); "Remains," prose writings (1652). His life was written by Izaak Walton. HERBERT, HENRY WILLIAM, an American author of English birth, born in London, April 7, 1807, died by his own hand in New York, May 17, 1858. From his father, the Hon. and Rev. William Herbert, dean of Manchester, who was distinguished for extensive and varied learning, he acquired a literary taste subsequently developed at Eton college, which he entered at 13 years of age, and at Caius college, Cambridge, where he was graduated in 1828. He came to the United States in 1831, and until 1839 was employed in New York as teacher of Greek in the school of the Rev. Mr. Huddart. During this time he began to write for the public, and from 1833 to 1836 was editor of the "American Monthly Magazine," at one time in connection with C. F. Hoffman. In 1834 he published his first historical novel, "The Brothers, a Tale of the Fronde," followed by "Cromwell" (1887), "Marmaduke Wyvil" in 1831. He became member of parliament for (1843), and "The Roman Traitor" (1848). Dur- South Wilts in 1832, and has since continued to ing this time he acquired a reputation as an au- represent that county almost uninterruptedly. thority on sporting matters, but wrote on a great He seconded in 1834 a resolution for the excluvariety of subjects, many drawn from French sion of dissenters from the university of Oxford, and English history, a number of works which and voted in 1838 against the introduction of enjoyed in their time great popularity. For the ballot, but subsequently became zealous several years previous to his death Mr. Herbert in behalf of liberal measures. He advocated a resided near Newark, N. J. In addition to 14 modification of the corn laws, and in 1841, on novels, he was the author of several works on the accession of Sir Robert Peel, he became different eras of history, and was also a copious secretary at the admiralty, till Feb. 1845, when translator, having made versions of several he officiated as secretary at war with a seat French romances, of Weiss's "Protestant Re- in the cabinet, till July, 1846. He was one fugees" (New York, 1854), of the "Prome- of the most influential and active supporters of theus" and "Agamemnon" of Eschylus, and of Sir Robert Peel, and several elaborate speeches poetry from French and Italian authors. His in behalf of free trade attest his parliamentmost celebrated and characteristic works were, ary ability. During Lord John Russell's adhowever, on sporting, published under the ministration (1846-'52) he sided with the oppseudonyme of Frank Forester, namely: "The position, and did not resume his office as Field Sports of the United States and British secretary at war until Dec. 28, 1852, under the Provinces" (1849), “Frank Forester and his Aberdeen administration. In 1855 he accepted Friends" (London, 1849), the "Fish and Fish- the direction of colonial affairs in the cabinet ing of the United States," &c. (New York, of Lord Palmerston, but, along with some other 1850), “Young Sportsman's Complete Manual," ," members of the Peelite party, he resigned after "The Horse and Horsemanship of the United a few weeks, on account of the appointment States and British Provinces of North Amer- of a committee of inquiry into the state of the ica" (2 vols. 4to., 1857), and "American army before Sebastopol, which was considered Game." Mr. Herbert also edited various works, as implying a censure on the administration of and was a versatile contributor to the leading Lord Aberdeen. In 1857 he voted against the literary magazines and journals of the country. Chinese war and in favor of an extension of the As a writer on field sports he was the first in elective franchise. In June, 1859, he resumed America to give prominence to a department his place in the new Palmerston cabinet as secof literature which has of late years become retary at war. He married in 1846 the only both copious and popular. daughter of Lieut. Gen. Ashe à Court, by whom he has many children. HERBERT, JOHN ROGERS, an English historical painter, born in Maldon, Essex, Jan. 23, 1810. He became a student in the royal academy while a boy, and before the age of 24 had acquired considerable reputation as a portrait painter. Among his sitters was the princess Victoria. He afterward devoted himself to works of history and genre, and distinguished himself by a carefulness of finish and an accuracy and significance of detail which the pre-Raphaelites have since more fully developed. About 1839 he became a convert to the Roman Catholic church, and during the next few years gave his attention in a great measure to religious subjects. Latterly he has been almost exclusively employed on the decoration of the new houses of parliament, for which he has furnished several cartoons, illustrating the story of King Lear, and a series of 9 scriptural subjects. In 1846 he was elected a member of the royal academy. HERBERT, SIDNEY, an English statesman, born in Richmond, near London, Sept. 16, 1810. His father was the 11th earl of Pembroke, his mother the only daughter of Count Simon Woronzoff, a Russian nobleman; and his eldest brother is the present earl of Pembroke, whose wife, the princess Octavia Spinelli, daughter of the duke of Laurino and widow of the Sicilian prince Buttera de Rubari, died childless in 1857. Sidney Herbert was educated at Harrow and Oriel college, Oxford, where he was graduated HERBERT, SIR THOMAS, an English traveller and author, born in York about 1606, died there in 1682. He studied at Oxford and Cambridge, and in 1626 accompanied Sir Dodmore Cotton on his embassy to Persia. He returned to England in 4 years, after having visited Persia, northern Africa, and the East Indies, and in 1634 published a work entitled "Some Yeares Travels into Africa and the Great Asia, especially the Territories of the Persian Monarchy," &c. In the civil war Herbert took the side of the parliament, was one of the commissioners of Halifax, and was sent by parliament among the deputies to Newcastle to receive the king from the Scotch. Charles was so won by his kind and courteous behavior, that, though he was a Presbyterian, he retained him to the last, after his other attendants had been dismissed. Herbert, for his services to the king, was rewarded by Charles II. with the title of baronet. Together with some others, he wrote the Threnodia Carolina, an account of the last two years of the life of King Charles I. (1678, reprinted in 1813). HERBERT, WILLIAM, 3d earl of Pembroke, an English poet, born in Wilton, Wiltshire, April 8, 1580, died in London, April 10, 1630. He was a chancellor of the university of Oxford, a knight of the garter, for some time governor of Portsmouth, and lord chamberlain of the royal household, a contributor to the Bodleian library of valuable Greek MSS., and gave his name to Pembroke college, Oxford. He wrote poems of little merit, and some of a licentious character; but great interest is attached to his name on account of the supposition of recent inquirers that he was the W. H. of Shakespeare's sonnets. Herbert, whose character is admirably drawn by Clarendon in his "History of the Rebellion," was a man of learning and of a noble and gallant character, though of a licentious mode of life. Hallam, in his "History of the Literature of Europe," favors the belief that he really was the idolized friend of the great English dramatist, although he admits the fact is not proved. HERBERT, WILLIAM, an English clergyman and author, born in 1778, died in 1847. He was the 3d son of Henry, earl of Carnarvon, and a graduate of Oxford, practised for some time at doctors' commons, was a member of the house of commons, afterward took orders, and in 1840 became dean of Manchester. He was one of the earliest contributors to the "Edinburgh Review," and his editorial and original labors comprised a wide range of literary activity. Among his most noted works are a series of translations from the Norse, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, German, Danish, &c.; "Helga," an original poem founded on Scandinavian history and manners; and lastly his celebrated poem on Attila, which was highly eulogized by his friend Henry Hallam, and pronounced by an Edinburgh reviewer one of the most Miltonian poems of the last 20 years. This poem is included in his miscellaneous works (3 vols., London, 1838-'42). HERCULANEUM, an ancient city of southern Italy, about 5 m. S. E. from Naples, supposed to have been founded by the Pelasgi, and inhabited by a mixed race of Pelasgic, Oscan, and Greek descent. Delightfully situated upon the coast of Campania, at the foot of Vesuvius, the town was a place of resort for many wealthy Romans; but it was of no special commercial importance. In A. D. 63 there occurred a terrible earthquake, which nearly destroyed this and the neighboring city of Pompeii, a notice of which was recorded by the historians of that period. But in the accounts of the greater catastrophe which overwhelmed these cities 16 years afterward, no allusion is made to them, and in subsequent writings no mention is made of their former existence. The younger Pliny in two letters to Tacitus described the sudden appearance of a cloud which rose in the afternoon of Aug. 24, A. D. 79, over Vesuvius, shooting upward to a great height and spreading out at top like a pine tree; and succeeding this appearance the precipitation of showers of ashes and cinders, which filled the atmosphere, producing intense darkness that continued to the 3d day. His uncle the elder Pliny, admiral of the fleet at Misenum, entered his vessel and ordered the others to proceed to the assistance of the inhabitants along the shore. He reached Stabiæ, the hot cinders falling on the decks of the ships, and entered the house of his friend Pompianus. Flames were raging around, and the court of the house was fast filling with cinders. Retreating to the shore in the intense darkness, protected by pillows upon their heads, they found the sea too tempestuous for them to embark. Pliny then laid himself upon a sail on the shore, and his companions fled before the sulphurous flames. Here his body was found 3 "days afterward. Previous to this eruption of Vesuvius the only evidence of the mountain being volcanic was in the ancient lavas around it. For ages it had been quiet, and its fertile slopes, as recorded in the epigram of Martial, were clothed with flourishing vineyards. The showers of ashes, cinders, and stones continued for 8 days and nights, accompanied with frequent torrents of rain; and when quiet was restored, the cities of Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabia had disappeared, and in the widespread desolation no landmarks remained by which to fix their sites. By later eruptions currents of lava have added beds of solid rocky materials to the accumulations over Herculaneum, burying the city, as was ascertained in the last century, to the depth of 80 to 112 feet. Sir William Hamilton states in the "Philosophical Transactions," vol. Ixi., that there appear to have been 6 subsequent overflows, principally of melted lava, and that sufficient time elapsed after each for the formation of a soil, which may still be observed between the layers of lava where a section of these is exposed to view. The ejected matters which first buried the city and filled the houses were volcanic ashes or dust, pumice stones, and cinders, which when agglomerated together in masses constitute the tufa of the Italians, used by them as a building stone. It is by these matters only that Pompeii has remained covered, the later flows of lava not having reached the locality. The thickness of its covering consequently hardly exceeds 15 to 20 feet. Had melted lavas flowed first through these cities, all vestige of them would probably have been irrevocably lost; but the layer of tufa has served to preserve the objects it covered from the destructive effects of the subsequent fiery currents. The materials of the tufa, Sir William Hamilton supposes, were chiefly carried in as a stream of liquid mud; and this in hardening retained the impressions of the objects it engulfed as perfectly as if these had been taken in plaster of Paris. The modern discovery of Herculaneum resulted from the digging of a well in the year 1709. Ancient works of art were brought to light, but the Neapolitan government finally prohibited further explorations. In 1738 they were recommenced, and have since been prosecuted at intervals. The area examined is estimated not to exceed 600 yards in length by 300 in breadth; and portions once excavated are again filled in with rubbish to avoid the expense of raising this to the surface. Underground. passages like those of a mine have been opened along some of the streets, and private and public buildings have been explored and partially uncovered, without however exposing them to the light HERCULANEUM of day. A large and highly ornamented theatre, capable of seating about 8,000 persons, its walls highly decorated, and its floors and pillars constructed of different colored marbles, is the most important building discovered. A basilica standing near by contained the largest pieces of painting, copies of which have been engraved, together with representations of numerous objects of interest found in the ruins, in the work prepared by order of the king of the Two Sicilies, entitled Antichita di Ercolano (9 vols. imp. fol., Naples, 1757-'92). The streets of the city are found to be paved with lava, as are now the streets of Naples. One was more than 30 feet wide, and furnished with raised sidewalks. The houses were generally small and of irregular shape, built of brick, and only one story high. The walls were frequently found to be cracked, and some had been braced up with props, no doubt in consequence of the earthquake which had seriously damaged the town 16 years previous to its final destruction. The various relics obtained were first deposited in the royal museum at Portici, and afterward were removed to the Museo Borbonico at Naples. A collection of manuscripts nearly 2,000 in number excited great interest, in the hope that among them might be found some of the lost works of the great classic writers. They were in the form of rolls of papyrus, some upon a stick which had become converted into charcoal; and the substance of the paper was in many instances so changed that it resembled a sort of skeleton of a leaf holding together the In mixed earthy and carbonaceous matter. many the substance which composed the letters appeared to have been removed from its place and gathered in the folds in spots and lines of the finest charcoal. The unrolling and deciphering of the most perfect of these manuscripts was a task demanding the greatest patience and ingenuity. It was undertaken about the middle of the last century by a skilful copyist, Antonio Piaggi, who after long continued application succeeded in transferring to paper facsimiles of The Neapolitan many of the manuscripts. government did not make public the nature of any of the manuscripts for 40 years. They then published in 1793 a specimen, which proved to be a dull treatise on music by Philodemus, an Epicurean, showing the injurious influence of the art, and the importance of discouraging it. The prince of Wales, afterward George IV., took great interest in the investigation of these manuscripts. His chaplain, the Rev. John Hayter, was occupied at Naples from 1802 to 1806 in producing facsimiles of them. Copies of 94 were sent to the prince, and were by him presented to the university of Oxford; and in 1824-5 two volumes were published at Oxford of these original treatises, in Greek as they were found with all their imperfections. The essays are on various subjects, many very short, and none possess extraordinary merit. In 1818 Sir Humphry Davy was sent by the prince of Wales to Naples to experiment upon the manuscripts, and in 1821 he furnished a HERCULANO DE CARVALHO, ALESSANDRO, a Portuguese writer and poet, born in Guimaraens in 1796. He was sent to study at Paris, where he distinguished himself by his knowledge of European languages and literature. He identified himself soon after return. ing to Portugal with the revolutionary party, and took an active part in 1820 in the popular movement at Oporto which resulted in the proclamation of a constitutional government In 1826 he published a strange politico-religious poem, A voz de propheta, in which, in a sort of |