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to have been honest and faithful in the service of his country, with a dash of vanity and simplicity.

HEATHFIELD, LORD. See ELIOTT, GEORGE AUGUSTUS.

HEBBEL, FRIEDRICH, a German lyric and dramatic poet, born in Wesselburen, Holstein, March 18, 1813. He was graduated at Heidelberg, and went to Hamburg, where his "Judith" (1841), "Genoveva" (1848), and "The Diamond" (1847), were completed. He now successively visited Copenhagen, Paris, London, and Naples. In Vienna, he married the actress Christine Enghaus in 1848.

HEBE, in Greek mythology, the goddess of youth and daughter of Jupiter and Juno. Her avocations were various. She served her fellow divinities with nectar at their festivals; assisted her mother in putting the horses to her chariot; and bathed and dressed her brother Mars. She is said to have been married to Hercules after his apotheosis, and to have been the mother of two sons by him.

HEBEL, JOHANN PETER, a German poet, born in Basel, May 11, 1760, died at Schwetzingen, Sept. 22, 1826. He studied at Erlangen, and in 1791 was appointed professor in the gymnasium of Carlsruhe. He became in 1805 church counsellor, in 1819 prelate. His poems, which were principally written in a Swabian sub-dialect which prevails especially in the Rhenish region near Basel, are remarkable for simplicity and yet refinement. Goethe praised them warmly in a review which did much for the fame of the poet. Hebel's principal works are: Allemannische Gedichte (Carlsruhe, 8th ed. 1842), of which there are 5 different high German translations; Die biblischen Geschichten (Stuttgart, 1824); and Der rheinländische HausFreund (Stuttgart, 1827). A monument was erected to Hebel in Carlsruhe in 1835.

HEBER, REGINALD, an English bishop and author, born in Malpas, Cheshire, April 21, 1783, died in Trichinopoly, presidency of Madras, April 3, 1826. In early childhood he manifested a remarkable fondness for study, and at the age of 7 had translated Phædrus into EngJish verse. Entering Brasenose college, Oxford, in 1800, he took high rank as a classical scholar, and during his first year at the university his Carmen Seculare, a hexameter poem commemorating the opening of the century, obtained the prize for Latin verse. In 1803 he produced his prize poem "Palestine," which occupies a prominent place among his poetical remains, and which is still considered the best performance of the kind emanating from the university. After a brilliant academical career, he took his degree of B.A. in 1804, and the next year gained the bachelor's prize for an English prose essay on the "Sense of Honor." Subsequently he made an extensive tour through northern and south-eastern Europe, and in 1807 took orders and was presented by his brother Richard to a living at Hodnet in Shropshire, belonging to the family, on which he settled in

1809, immediately after his marriage with the daughter of Dr. Shipley, dean of St. Asaph. In order to devote himself to his parochial duties, he withdrew in a great measure from the society of the world by which he was courted, and for 14 years labored faithfully among his parishioners, to whom the gentleness of his manners and his benevolence of heart greatly endeared him. He sought out distress and relieved it with almost prodigal liberality, and was never happier than when he could afford consolation at the bedside of the sick and needy. His leisure hours were still devoted to literature, and he became a frequent contributor to the "Quarterly Review," beside cultivating his poetical talent in the composition of hymns, it having long been a favorite project with him to elevate the literary standard of church psalmody. In 1812 appeared a small volume, entitled "Poems and Translations" (12mo., London), containing many original hymns written to particular tunes, his talent for adapting poetry, sacred or secular, to any tune he chanced to hear, being a remarkable characteristic with him. The elegant versification and devotional fervor of these place them among the most popular and beautiful productions of the kind in the language. He also commenced a dictionary of the Bible, which he was compelled by other duties to relinquish, and in 1819-22 edited the works of Jeremy Taylor, with a copious life of the author, and a critical examination of his writings. In 1822 he was appointed preacher at Lincoln's Inn, and in the succeeding year was consecrated bishop of Calcutta, a see which at that time embraced all British India, Ceylon, Mauritius, and Australasia. He departed for Calcutta in June, 1823, and 12 months later entered upon the visitation of his vast diocese. From that time until his death he was incessantly occupied with the duties of his office, making long journeys to Bombay, Madras, and Ceylon, and showing an energy and capacity which, combined with his mildness and benignity, elicited, it is said, the espect and veneration of the native population of India. He died of a fit of apoplexy, while refreshing himself with a cold bath, half an hour after administering the rite of confirmation to a number of native converts. After his death appeared his "Narrative of a Journey through the Upper Provinces of India, from Calcutta to Bombay" (2 vols. 4to., London, 1828), a work abounding in animated descriptions of scenery and manners, and vividly illustrating the Christian zeal and benevolence of the writer. In 1827 his hymns were first published entire in a volume entitled "Hymns written and adapted to the Service of the Church," of which many subsequent editions have appeared. The missionary hymn in this collection, "From Greeland's icy mountains," is familiar to the Protestant church service wherever the English language is spoken, and would alone preserve the author's name from oblivion. The latest edition of his complete poems, including

his "Palestine," is that of 1855 (8vo., London). Among these the translations from Pindar have been greatly admired. The Bampton lectures entitled "The Personality and Office of the Christian Comforter" (8vo., Oxford, 1813), were his only sermons published during his life. Several volumes of his sermons delivered in England and India were posthumously published, and in 1830 appeared the "Life and Unpublished Works of Reginald Heber, by his Widow" (2 vols. 4to., London). His life and character have been several times sketched by able hands; among others by Jeffrey, who describes him as "zealous for his church, and not forgetful of his station, but remembering it more for the duties than for the honors that were attached to it, and infinitely more zealous for the religious improvement and for the happiness and spiritual and worldly good of his fellow creatures of every tongue, faith, and complexion."-RICHARD, half brother of the preceding, and a well known bibliomaniac, born in Westminster in 1773, died in Oct. 1833. He was educated at Brasenose college, Oxford, where he was noted for his assiduous cultivation of the Latin and Greek classics. At 19 years of age he edited the works of Silius Italicus (2 vols. 12mo., 1792), and a year later prepared for the press an edition of the Claudiani Carmina (2 vols. 12mo., 1793). A taste for book collecting was developed in him in childhood, and in the latter part of his life it became a ruling passion. Succeeding on the death of his father in 1804 to large estates in Yorkshire and Shropshire, which he considerably augmented and improved, he forthwith devoted himself to the purchase of rare books; and having abundant means, he was enabled to amass a stock of books and manuscripts such as is seldom found in the possession of a single individual. After ransacking England he travelled extensively on the continent, purchasing everywhere, and leaving large depots of books in Paris, Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, and elsewhere in the Netherlands and Germany. His residence in Pimlico, London, was filled with books from top to bottom, and he had, beside, another house in York street laden with literary treasures, and a large library in Oxford. At his death his collection in England was estimated by Dr. Dibdin at 105,000 volumes, exclusive of many thousands on the continent, the whole having cost upward of £180,000. Mr. Allibone in his "Dictionary of Authors," however, considers this an underestimate, and states as the result of a careful computation that the volumes in England numbered 113,195, and those in France and Holland 33,362, making a total of 146,827, to which must be added a large collection of pamphlets bound and unbound. This immense library was disposed of at auction after the owner's death, the sale lasting 216 days, and realizing over £60,000. Mr. Heber was an unsuccessful candidate for the representation of the university of Oxford in parliament in 1806, but was returned for it in 1821, and served until 1826.

HÉBERT, JACQUES RENÉ, a French revolutionist, known also under the assumed name of PÈRE DUCHESNE, born in Alençon in 1755, executed in Paris, March 22, 1794. Of low parentage, and still lower education, he repaired when very young to Paris, where he led an obscure life, generally supporting himself by dishonest means. When the revolution broke out, he took to pamphlet writing, and soon established a scurrilous newspaper called Le Père Duchesne, which had considerable popularity among the lowest classes of the people, and was instrumental in exciting several insurrectionary movements. After Aug. 10, 1792, he was one of the most active members of the self-constituted revolutionary commune, and received the appointment of substitute to the procureur syndic. The Girondists having obtained from the convention an order for his arrest, he was liberated in consequence of a violent outbreak of the citizens, and became more popular than ever. A member of the commission to examine Marie Antoinette, he uttered the most outrageous calumnies against the unfortunate queen. When the Girondists were in their turn arrested, he is said to have plotted their assassination before their trial. In conjunction with Chaumette, Anacharsis Clootz, and others, he established the worship of the "goddess Reason;" and, relying upon the support of the commune and the club of Cordeliers, organized the ultrarevolutionist party which bore his name, the Hébertists or Enragés. The committee of public safety, which was controlled by Robespierre, had them arraigned by virtue of a decree of the convention; and on the night of March 13, 1794, Hébert, Chaumette, Montmoro, Ronsin, Clootz, and 14 others, were conveyed to prison. Hébert evinced great cowardice on his trial, and was executed amid the jeers of the Parisians. The circulation of his paper had been immense. During the year 1793 he received from the government no less than $36,000 for copies gratuitously distributed. Beside his journal, he published several pamphlets of a similar character, Les vitres cassés, Catéchisme, Cantique séculaire, Almanach, &c., all of them signed "Le Père Duchesne."

HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE, one of the canonical books of the New Testament, addressed to converted Jews, and designed to dissuade them from relapsing into Judaism and to fortify them in the Christian faith. It aims to demonstrate the preeminence of Christ over Moses and the angels of the Lord, and of the gospel over the law, and to show that the latter was typical of the former, and was abolished by it. The Greek fathers unanimously ascribed the epistle to Paul, and its Pauline authorship was generally accepted in the western church from the 5th century, though in the first 3 centuries no Latin writer attributed it to him. Luther suggested Apollos as the author, and has been followed by Bertholdt, De Wette, Bleek, and Tholuck. Böhme and Mynster ascribe it to Silas; others to Clement, Luke, or Barnabas.

HEBREWS, ISRAELITES, or JEWS (Heb. Ibrim, Beney Israel, Jehudim), a people of Semitic race, whose ancestors appear at the very dawn of the history of mankind on the banks of the Euphrates, Jordan, and Nile, and whose fragments are now to be seen, in larger or smaller numbers, in almost all the cities of the globe, from Batavia to New Orleans, from Stockholm to Cape Town. This people, as such, forms one of the most remarkable phenomena in history. When little more numerous than a family, they had their language, customs, and peculiar observances, treated with princes, and in every respect acted as a nation. Though broken as if into atoms and scattered through all climes, among the rudest and the most civilized nations, they have preserved through thousands of years common features, habits, and observances, a common religion, literature, and sacred language. Without any political union, without a common head or centre, they are generally regarded and regard themselves, as a nation. They began as nomads "migrating from nation to nation, from state to state;" their law made them agriculturists for 15 centuries; their exile has transformed them into a mercantile people. They have struggled for their national existence against the Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Syrians, and Romans; have been conquered and nearly exterminated by each of these powers, and have survived them all. They have been oppressed and persecuted by emperors and republics, sultans and popes, Moors and inquisitors; they were proscribed in Catholic Spain, Protestant Norway, and Greek Muscovy, while their persecutors sang the hymns of their psalmists, revered their books, believed in their prophets, and even persecuted them in the name of their God. They have numbered philosophers among the Greeks of Alexandria and the Saracens of Cordova, have transplanted the wisdom of the East beyond the Pyrénées and the Rhine, and have been treated as pariahs among pagans, Mohammedans, and Christians. They have fought for liberty under Kosciuszko and Blücher, and popular assemblies among the Slavi and Germans still withheld from them the right of living in certain towns, villages, and streets. This phenomenon, however, admits of explanation. At the very beginning they were not merely a family or tribe, but also a sect, a society or community, superior to those surrounding it in culture, morals, and ideals, too powerless to hope for great success over others, but anxious to defend their own moral condition at the price of selfisolation, and to perpetuate it by the development of peculiar customs and religious observances. The father of the people himself, Abraham, is recorded as acting under a divine mission, and leaving the land of his parents and his birth in order to preserve and propagate his ideal in "his children and house." After a hard trial in Egypt and a marvellous deliverance they received a law, at the same time national and religious, which constituted them a

"people of priests" to enlighten the nations by their example, and which by its sublimity inspired them with the natural conviction that they were the chosen people of God, who alone knew him and walked in his ways. The national and religious elements became more and more developed and blended, the antagonism with the surrounding idolatry and religiously instituted immorality more and more striking; a long continued struggle for self-preservation against overwhelming influences changed enthusiasm into fanaticism and self-esteem into repulsive pride, which was repaid by antipathy, hatred, and cruel persecution. Their national independence was destroyed; fanatical attempts to recover it failed; they were scattered among nations who in the meanwhile had reached a civilization in some respects superior to their own; the ancient idolatries were replaced by new religious systems drawn from Hebrew sources; the name of their God was now praised from the rising of the sun to its setting; the ruins of their Zion had become sacred to the nations. But still they clung to their faith, ceremonies, traditions, and hopes; for their religious and national characteristics were so deeply rooted and so well blended that they wonderfully supported each other. They were still convinced of their religious and moral superiority to the Gentiles; they were justified by the cruelties of the world in believing themselves its martyrs; they submitted to them from what they regarded as a divine obligation. Their masters punished their self-sufficiency, humiliating pride, and pretensions by crushing burdens and legal degradation, their religious enemies by calum-. nies, the people by contemptuous social exclusion; and it was not till the last quarter of the 18th century that a brighter prospect opened by the inauguration of the principle of religious liberty and civil equality in America and afterward in the N. W. of Europe. This all-pervading mixture of the religious and national elements also requires a different treatment of their history from that of all other nations. It must be at once a history of the people, of its religion, and of its literature. Separate from it the religious leaders Moses, Ezra, Hillel, Rabbi Gamaliel, &c., and no national history remains. The prose writings of the Pentateuch, the effusions of Isaiah or Micah, the Psalms, the Lamentations, the Hebrew writings of Maimonides or Mendelssohn, can as little be separated, as merely literary works, from the history of the people, as can the Philippics of Demosthenes from that of Athens, Cicero's orations against Catiline from that of Rome, or the declaration of independence from that of the United States. Having thus stated the character of our subject and the only natural way of treating it, we must also refer the readers of this brief sketch for further details, criticism, and illustrations, to the respective special articles of this work, as well as to the "book of books" itself, which is in the hands of each of them.-The history of the Hebrews begins (about 2000

B. C., according to the generally adopted chronology) with the emigration of the Semite Abraham from Ur of the Chaldees (Ur Casdim), a place which has been identified with a fortress of the same name in Mesopotamia mentioned by Ammianus, and by more recent critics (Rawlinson and others) with Hur or Mugheir in the vicinity of Babylon. He was by his father Terah a descendant of Eber, and may as such have borne the name Ibri (Hebrew), but more likely he was first designated by it in the land west of the Euphrates, as an immigrant from beyond (eber) the "great river." The name Israelite was applied to his descendants after a surname of Jacob, his grandson, and that of Jehudim (Jews) at a much later period (first mentioned about 712 B. C.), when, after the dispersion of the 10 tribes, the house of Judah became the representative of the whole people. Separating from his relatives, who were idolaters, Abraham passed over from Mesopotamia (Aram Naharaim) to Canaan or Palestine (as it was afterward called by the Greeks after the Philistines, who inhabited its S. W. coast), where he lived the life of a nomad, being rich in herds, flocks, and attendants, and worshipping the "Creator of heaven and earth," to whose service, "to walk before him and to be innocent," he bound himself and his house, in after life, by the covenant of circumcision. Having repaired to Egypt during a famine and returned, he rescued his nephew Lot, who lived in the valley of the lower Jordan, from the captivity of Amraphel, a king of Shinar, and his allies; lived for some time in the land of the Philistines; and finally settled near Hebron, where he died, leaving his main inheritance and his faith to Isaac, his son by his relative Sarah. Isaac thus became the second Hebrew patriarch, while his brother Ishmael, the son of Hagar, an Egyptian woman, sought a separate abode in Arabia, where he became the father of a Bedouin tribe. Of the two sons of Isaac, only Jacob (afterward Israel), the favorite of their mother Rebecca, imitated the peaceful and pious life of his fathers and propagated the Hebrew line in Palestine, while his brother Esau (or Edom) settled in the mountainous land of Seir (Idumæa). Jacob had 12 sons, of whom he distinguished Joseph, the child of his favorite wife Rachel. This excited the envy of the others, who secretly sold their brother as a slave to Egypt, where he rose through his wisdom to the dignity of prime minister to one of the Pharaohs. The latter allowed him to bring the whole family of his father, numbering 70 males, over from the land of Canaan, and to settle them in the province of Goshen (E. of the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, it is supposed), where they could continue their pastoral life, unmolested by the Egyptians, who held that mode of existence in great contempt, and where they would be uncontaminated by Egyptian idolatry. Jacob closed his life, which had been shorter and less happy than that of his fathers, after having adopted the two sons of Joseph, Manasseh and Ephraim, for his

own, and blessed all his children. The book of Genesis, the only record of that earliest period of Hebrew history, closing with the death of Jacob and Joseph, also contains the last blessing of the former, a sublime vision in which love and just censure are mingled, and a specimen of the most ancient Hebrew poetry. After the death of Joseph the Hebrews were not only oppressed but degraded to the condition of slaves, were overtasked and employed in the public works, while the fear of their joining a foreign enemy finally led one of their tyrants to decree what may be called their slow extermination, they having in the meanwhile increased to a prodigious number. How long they remained in the "house of slaves" (for the Hebrews were not the only slaves in Egypt) cannot be determined, there being scriptural testimony for 430, as well as for about 210 years; nor can the precise date of their arrival, which Bunsen endeavors to fix almost 1,000 years earlier than it is fixed by scriptural chronology; nor of their exodus, which, according to some of the most celebrated Egyptological critics, Wilkinson, Bunsen, Lepsius, &c., took place in the last quarter of the 14th century B. C., while according to a distinct biblical passage (1 Kings, vi. 1) it must have happened early in the 15th. Nor is it easier or more important to find the reigns during which these events took place. There is no conclusive evidence to identify either Phthahmen, Menephthah, or Rhamses I. or II., with the Pharaoh of the exodus, as various critical defenders of a later date have tried to do. Others have attempted to identify the Hebrews with the Hyksos, which is little less absurd than the fables of Manetho mentioned by Josephus. The last named Jewish historian has also some traditional additions to the early life of Moses, concerning his exploits in Ethiopia, which may still find confirmation in future Egyptological discoveries. Omitting all special criticism, we must confine our narrative here to a brief extract from the sacred and therefore well guarded record of the nation itself; and as there is no other beside it, even criticism can do little more. Born at the time when the oppression of his people had been carried to its extreme, Moses, the younger son of Amram, a descendant of Levi, the 3d son of Jacob, was doomed to perish in the Nile like all new-born males of the Israelites, but was saved by the love of his mother Jochebed and his sister Miriam, and the compassion of a daughter of the Pharaoh. Adopted as a son by the princess, who gave him his name (Egyptian, mo, water, and yzes, drawn; Hebrew, mashoh, to draw) in allusion to her having drawn him out of the water, but nursed by his mother, he united the highest Egyptian education with the feelings of a Hebrew. And "when Moses was grown he went out unto his brethren, and looked on their burdens." Seeing an Egyptian man smiting one of his brethren, he killed him, fled to Midian, married Zipporah, the daughter of Jethro, a wise priest or prince of that country,

by whom he had two sons, and tended the flock of his father-in-law, leading it into the desert, as far as Mount Horeb, the N. E. eminence of Mount Sinai, in the S. part of the Arabian peninsula between the two gulfs of the Red sea. It was not till the decline of his life that he returned to Egypt to become the "shepherd of his people." He appeared with his brother Aaron, his spokesman, assembled the elders of Israel, and announced to them their approaching deliverance and return to Canaan in the name of the Everlasting (Hebrew, Jehovah, Being) and Unchangeable (Ehyeh-asher-chyeh, I-am-that-Iam), the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, who had seen their affliction." He now repaired to the palace of the king, proved superior to his priests, gained the admiration of his ministers and people (Exod. xi. 3), threatened, and finally compelled him to grant his demand by a series of disasters, the last of which was the sudden destruction at midnight of all the first born Egyptians (probably then a mighty aristocracy). The Israelites had received their secret instructions, and immediately departed toward the desert. Moses led them across the northern extremity of the gulf of Akabah or Suez, the western prolongation of the Red sea (Heb. Yam Soof, reedy sea); and the king of Egypt, who, repenting of having let them go, pursued them with his cavalry and heavy war chariots, perished there with his army. The "song of Moses," which celebrates this great event (Exod. XV.), is another admirable monument of ancient Hebrew poetry, though surpassed in grandeur by that which closes the narrative of his life (Deut. xxxii.). After having repulsed an attack of the Amalekites, a roving and predatory Arabian tribe, Moses led the people to Mount Sinai, which from the delivery of the ten commandments now received the name of the mountain of God. This divine decalogue not only contained the common fundamental points of every moral and legal code ("Honor thy father and mother," "Thou shalt not murder,"&c.), but also included the sublime truth of monotheism, the great social institution of the sabbath, and the lofty moral precept: "Thou shalt not covet." These commandments, which formed the basis of a "covenant between God and Israel," together with the successively promulgated statutes, precepts, &c. (according to the rabbis altogether 865 positive and 248 negative obligations), constitute the Mosaic law (Torath Mosheh), which is contained principally in the 2d and 3d, and repeated in the 5th book of the Pentateuch, and which for about 15 centuries remained, and with the exception of a strictly national part still is, the general code of the Hebrews. Its aims are the moral perfection of the individual and the welfare of society. Its means are chiefly a common and central worship, under the direction of the Aaronites (Cohenim), whose restrictive obligations are, however, not equalled by the privileges they enjoy; 8 festivals for the commemoration of great national events, thanksgiving and rejoicing, as well as for the

annual gathering of the whole people; a fast day for repentance; periodical readings of the law; general education through the Levites its guardians (Deut. xxxiii. 10); a weekly day of rest (sabbath) for the people and their animals; the 7th year as a periodical time of rest for the earth, as well as for the extinction of various pecuniary claims; numerous and most frequently repeated obligations for the support of the fatherless and widow, the poor and the stranger; an organized judiciary and police; a severe penal code; strict rules for the preservation of health and cleanliness; circumcision as a bodily mark of the covenant; and numerous other rites and ceremonies designed to guard the nationality, or to lead to the preservation of truths and principles (which has been admirably illustrated in Mendelssohn's "Jerusalem"). The spirit of the whole was well defined by Rabbi Hillel in his words to a heathen who desired to be instructed in Judaism in a few minutes: "Do not to others what you would not have others do to you' is the essence; every thing else is but comment." The chief principles are: self-sanctification and righteousness, in imitation of God, who is holy and righteous (Lev. xix. 2, &c.); brotherly love and equality, for all people are his children (Deut. xiv. i.); freedom, for all are bound exclusively to his service (Lev. xxv. 55); limited right of property, for the whole land belongs to him (Lev. xxv. 23). The principal promise of reward is the natural share of the individual in the happiness of society; the principal threat of celestial punishment, his natural share in its misfortunes; every mention of reward beyond the grave, which in the time of Moses had long been a chief element in the teachings of Egyptian and other priests, is avoided throughout, probably as promoting selfishness in a rude state of society by referring exclusively to the individual. The form of government is the republican (though a limited monarchy may be established if the people demand it), with the moral theocratic dictatorship of a prophet (nabi) like the lawgiver, with the sovereignty of the people who judge the merits and claims of the prophet above it, and above all the majesty of the divine law, which can be explained and developed, but not altered. The whole system is entirely practical, containing no definitions of supernatural things, except in a negative form, no articles of belief, no formulas of prayer. The following extracts from one chapter (Lev. xix.) of the Pentateuch may serve as an illustration of its general character: "Ye shall fear every man his mother and his father, and keep my sabbaths: I am the Lord your God. .. And when ye reap the harvest of your land, thou shalt not wholly reap the corners of thy field, neither shalt thou gather the gleanings of thy harvest. And thou shalt not glean thy vineyard, neither shalt thou gather every grape of thy vineyard; thou shalt leave them for the poor and the stranger: I am the Lord your God. Ye shall not steal, neither deal falsely, neither

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