which treat of the blood of Christ, the priesthood, indulgences, the veneration of images, and all the points at issue in that age concerning ecclesiastical doctrine or practice. Of the class of exegetical writings, there are 5 treatises, on the acts of Christ, the passion of Christ, a commentary on 7 chapters of the 1st Epistle to the Corinthians, and notes on other canonical epistles, and an explanation of 10 of the psalms. In the class of sermons there are 38, two of which were written at Constance, but never preached. There are two series of letters, the first of 14, written before, and the second of 56, written after his departure from Prague to Constance. The complete works of Huss were published in quarto at Strasbourg in 1525.-The Hussites, or followers of Huss in Bohemia, immediately made the offering of the cup to the laity in the sacrament of the eucharist the badge of their covenant. Upon the death of Wenceslas (1419), they refused to recognize the emperor Sigismund as king, whereupon the Hussite civil war broke out. They were divided into two parties, the more moderate Calixtines and the more rigid Taborites. Ziska, the leader of the latter party, assembled them on Mt. Tabor, captured Prague, pillaged the monasteries, and in several engagements defeated Sigismund. After the death of Ziska (1424), his place was filled by a monk named Procopius, who defeated the mercenaries sent under the name of crusaders by the emperor and the papal legates in the battles of Mies (1427) and Tachau (1431), and whose troops ravaged Austria, Franconia, Saxony, Catholic Bohemia, Lusatia, and Silesia. A council held at Basel in 1433 made concessions which were accepted by the Calixtines. The Taborites, rejecting the compromise, were vanquished in the battle of Prague (1434), and by the treaty of Iglau (1436) the compromise of Basel was accepted by Bohemia, and Sigismund was recognized as king. On the death of Sigismund (1437) controversies again arose, and civil wars were prosecuted with no decisive results, till at the diet of Kuttenberg (1485) a peace was established by King Ladislas which secured the Catholic and Calixtine parties in the possessions which they then held.-See Schubert, Geschichte des Hussitenkriegs (1825).

HUSSARS (Hung. húsz, 20, and ár, rate), the national cavalry of Hungary and Croatia. The name is also applied to some bodies of light cavalry in the armies of other countries of Europe. It is derived from the fact that in the 15th century every 20 houses in Hungary were required to furnish a soldier with a horse and furniture. The arms of the hussars are a sabre, a carbine, and pistols. Their regimentals were originally a fur cap with a feather, a doublet, a pair of breeches to which the stockings were attached, and a pair of red or yellow boots. There were 5 regiments of hussars under Tilly at Leipsic in 1631. The name first became general in the 18th century, when regiments of hussars were organized in the principal European armies.

HUSTINGS (Sax. hus-tynge, house of trial), the name of an ancient court granted to the city of London by Edward the Confessor, in 1052. It is the supreme court of judicature of the city, held annually before the mayor and common council. Winchester, York, Lincoln, and some other old English cities, have had similar courts. The name is now applied to the booths wherein parliamentary elections are conducted.

HUSTON, LORENZO Dow, D.D., an American clergyman, born in Cincinnati, Ohio, Feb. 24, 1820. He was educated at Woodford college; entered the Ohio conference of the Methodist Episcopal church in Sept. 1839; was transferred to the Kentucky conference in 1842; was elected by the general conference of the M. E. church, South, editor of the "Home Circle" and of the "Sunday School Visitor" in May, 1854, and reëlected in 1858. He received the degree of D.D. from Emory college, Ga., in 1856.

HUTCHESON, FRANCIS, the founder of the Scottish school of speculative philosophy, born in Ireland, Aug. 8, 1694, died in Glasgow in 1747. He studied theology at Glasgow, and became pastor of a Presbyterian congregation in the synod of Ulster. His first work, an "Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue" (1720), gave him distinction among philosophers, and gained for him the friendship of Archbishop King of Dublin. In 1728 he published a treatise on the "Nature and Conduct of the Passions and Affections," and in the following year was appointed professor of moral philosophy in the university of Glasgow, from which he received the degree of doctor of laws. His Synopsis Metaphysica Ontologiam et Pneumatologiam complectens, and his Philosophia Moralis Institutio, were written as text books for his classes. His most complete and elaborate work, the "System of Moral Philosophy," appeared after his death (2 vols., Glasgow, 1755), with an interesting biography by Dr. William Leechman. His writings are marked by purity of style, copiousness of illustration, and an amiable tone of feeling, and exerted a more general influence than the severe and profounder compositions of his contemporary Bishop Butler, with whom he coincided in his most important principles. Following in the path of Shaftesbury, he maintained that beside the 5 external senses we possess also internal senses, one of which occasions the emotions of beauty and sublimity and introduces us to the realm of aesthetics, and another gives rise to the moral feelings. He introduced the term moral sense, which had been once employed by Shaftesbury, and has continued to be a part of philosophical language. This suggestion of an inward source of ideas was the first step taken by the Scotch philosophy against the increasing materialism of the school of Locke. He also maintained the existence of certain metaphysical axioms or universal propositions, which are derived not from experience, but from the connate power of the mind (menti congenita intelligendi vis). Benevolent sentiments and acts he regarded as

the only objects of moral approbation, and denied that prudence, as long as its end was the profit of the agent, could be accounted virtuous. HUTCHINSON, ANNE, the founder of the Antinomian party in the New England colonies, died in Westchester co., N. Y., in Aug. 1643. She was the daughter of a Lincolnshire clergyman. In England she was interested in no preaching but that of John Cotton and her brother-in-law John Wheelwright, and it was her desire to enjoy the ministry of the former which induced her to follow him to New England. She arrived in Boston with her husband, Sept. 18, 1634, was admitted a member of the Boston church, Nov. 2, and rapidly acquired esteem and influence. She instituted meetings of the women of the church to discuss sermons and doctrines, in which, with a ready wit, bold spirit, and imposing familiarity with Scripture, she gave prominence to peculiar speculations which even on her voyage had attracted the attention and caused the displeasure of her fellow passengers. Such were the tenets that the person of the Holy Spirit dwells in every believer, and that the inward revelations of the Spirit, the conscious judgments of the mind, are of paramount authority. She had been two years in the country before the strife between her supporters and her opponents broke out into public action. Among her partisans were the young governor Vane, Cotton, Wheelwright, and the whole Boston church with the exception of 5 members, one of whom was the associate pastor Wilson, while the country clergy and churches were generally united against her. Wilson was censured by the church for a speech which he delivered on the subject in a meeting of magistrates and elders. Soon after (1637) Wheelwright was censured by the general court for a sermon in maintenance of his opinions which was pronounced seditious, but the governor protected him, and the Boston church petitioned against the proceeding. "The dispute," says Bancroft, "infused its spirit into every thing; it interfered with the levy of troops for the Pequot war; it influenced the respect shown to the magistrates, the distribution of town lots, the assessment of rates; and at last the continued existence of the two opposing parties was considered inconsistent with the public peace.' The peculiar tenets of Mrs. Hutchinson were among the 82 opinions condemned as erroneous by the ecclesiastical synod at Newtown, Aug. 30, 1637; and in November she was summoned before the general court, and after a trial of two days was sentenced with some of her associates to banishment from the territory of Massachusetts, but was allowed to remain during the winter at a private house in Roxbury. It was her first intention to remove to the banks of the Piscataqua, but changing her plan she joined the larger number of her friends, who, led by John Clarke and William Coddington, had been welcomed by Roger Williams to his vicinity, and had obtained through his influence from the chief of the Narragansetts

the island of Aquetneck, subsequently called Rhode island. There a body politic was formed on democratic principles, in which no one was to be "accounted a delinquent for doctrine." The church in Boston, from which she had been excommunicated, vainly sent a deputation of "four men of a lovely and winning spirit" to the island with the hope of reclaiming her. After the death of her husband in 1642, she removed with her surviving family into the territory of the Dutch, probably from apprehensions that Rhode island might not be a safe place of refuge from the encroachments of Massachusetts. The precise locality where she settled has been a matter of dispute, but according to the latest authorities it was near Hell Gate, Westchester co., N. Y. The Indians and the Dutch were then at war, and in an invasion of the settlement by the former her house was attacked and set on fire, and herself and all her family, excepting one child who was carried captive, perished either by the flames or by the weapons of the savages.

HUTCHINSON, JOHN, a Puritan colonel in the parliamentary service during the civil war in England, born in Nottinghamshire in 1617, died in Sandown castle, Kent, Sept. 11, 1664. He was a man of family and of good education, and was married at Richmond, July 3, 1638, to Lucy, daughter of Sir Allen Apsley, governor of the tower of London, with whom he subsequently settled on his estate at Owthorpe. Being of a religious turn of mind, he devoted much time to the study of divinity, from which his attention was soon diverted by the serious political questions which agitated the kingdom. A careful investigation of the matters at issue between the king and the parliament satisfied him of the justice of the latter's cause, and after the commencement of the civil war he declared for the parliament and was appointed governor of Nottingham castle, which he held until the close of the war. He afterward represented Nottingham in parliament, and, as a member of the high court of judiciary appointed for the trial of the king, concurred in the sentence pronounced on him, having first “addressed himself to God by prayer.' The subsequent course of Cromwell, however, met with the disapproval of Hutchinson, who was one of the few honest and consistent republicans among the public men of England. At the restoration he was comprehended in the general act of amnesty, but was subsequently arrested on a suspicion of treasonable conspiracy, and after a detention of 10 months in the tower was removed to Sandown castle, where he died of an aguish fever brought on by confinement in a damp cell.-Lucy APSLEY, wife of the preceding, born in the tower of London, of which her father was at the time governor, Feb. 9, 1620, died in the latter part of the 17th century. She survived her husband many years, and left a memoir of him, dictated by affectionate admiration of her subject, and valuable as a record of events, and as presenting many striking por

traits of public men, although too strongly biassed by her husband's political views to be considered an impartial record. One of its most interesting features is the insight it gives into the domestic life of the Puritan gentry, the authoress being, in the opinion of Professor Smyth, "often a painter of manners as minute and far more forcible than even Clarendon." According to the same authority: "She will be thought to have united the opposite virtues of the sexes, and to have been alike fitted to give a charm to existence amid the tranquillity of domestic life, and in an hour of trial to add enterprise and strength to the courage of a hero." Her work was first published from the original manuscript in 1806 (4to., London), under the editorial supervision of the Rev. Julius Hutchinson, a descendant. Several other editions have since appeared, the last being that published in "Bohn's Standard Library" in 1846.

HUTCHINSON, JOHN, an English philosopher, founder of a mystical school of philosophy and theology, born in Spennithorne, Yorkshire, in 1674, died Aug. 28, 1737. After receiving a careful private education, he served as steward in several noble families. As riding purveyor of the duke of Somerset, then master of the horse, he availed himself of his excellent opportunities for the study of natural history, and made a large collection of fossils. In 1724 appeared the first part of his "Moses's Principia,' in which he disputed the Newtonian theory of gravitation. In the second part (1727) he continued his criticisms of Newton, and maintained on biblical authority the doctrine of a plenum in opposition to that of a vacuum. From this time one or more of his uncouthly written volumes, containing a sort of cabalistic interpretation of the Hebrew Scriptures, appeared annually. His leading idea is that the Scriptures contain the elements of all rational philosophy as well as of general religion. The Hebrew language has not only its literal but its typical sense, every root of it being significant of hidden meanings. With this elastic principle of exegesis he deduces a system from which the occult powers of attraction, gravitation, magnetism, and electricity are excluded, but according to which the whole mechanism of the heavens is the result of the agency of fire, light, and spirit, the 3 material elements which were set to work in the beginning, and which typify the 3 persons of the Trinity. His views found numerous followers, among the more eminent of whom 'were President Forbes, Bishops Horne and Horsley, Jones of Nayland, Parkhurst the lexicographer, Robert Spearman, Julius Bates, Lee, Hodges, Wetherell, and Holloway, His philosophical and theological works were published in London in 13 vols. (1749-'65).

HUTCHINSON, THOMAS, governor of the province of Massachusetts, born in Boston, Sept. 9, 1711, died at Brompton, near London, in June, 1780. He was the son of a merchant of Boston who was long a member of the council, and he was graduated at Harvard college in

but

1727. After engaging without success in commerce, he began the study of law with reference to public life. He represented Boston for 10 years in the general court, of which he was for 3 years speaker. He became judge of probate in 1752, was a councillor from 1749 to 1766, lieutenant-governor from 1758 to 1771, and was appointed chief justice in 1760, thus holding 4 high offices at one time. In the disputes which led to the revolution he sided with the British government. His brother-in-law, Andrew Oliver, was appointed distributor of stamps under the law which was to go into effect Nov. 1, 1765, but was compelled by mobs to resign the office before that time. The mansion of Hutchinson was also twice attacked in consequence of a report that he had written letters in favor of the act, and on the second occasion (Aug. 26), when the rioters were maddened by liquor, his house was sacked, the furniture burned in bonfires in the street, and many manuscripts relating to the history of the province, which he had been 30 years in collecting and which could not be replaced, were lost. The inhabitants of the town on the following day in public meeting voted their abhorrence of the proceedings; but though many of the actors were well known, no one was punished. He, however, received compensation for his losses. In 1767 he took a seat in the council, claiming it ex officio as lieutenant-governor; both the house and council resisted his pretension, and he abandoned it. The legislature was inclined to restore him to the council in 1768, until it was announced by his opponent James Otis that he received an annual pension of £200 from the crown. When in 1769 Gov. Bernard was transferred to Virginia, the gov ernment of Massachusetts fell to Hutchinson. The popular excitement had already been increased by the arrival of British troops, and after the Boston massacre a committee of citizens, headed by Samuel Adams, forced him to consent to the removal of the regiments. He received his commission as governor in 1771, and his whole administration was characterized by duplicity and an avaricious love of money, writing letters which he never sent, but which he showed as evidence of his zeal for the liberties of the province, while he advised the estab lishment of a citadel in Boston, the stationing of a fleet in its harbor, the proclamation of martial law, and the transportation of "incendiaries" to England. In 1772 Dr. Franklin, then in London, procured some of his confidential letters, which were forwarded to Massachusetts, and ultimately communicated to the legislature in secret session. They proved that he had been for years opposing every part of the colonial constitution, and urging measures to enforce the supremacy of parliament; and the result was a petition to the king from the assembly and the council praying for his removal from the government. The last of his public difficulties was when the people of Boston and the neighboring towns determined to

resist the taxation on teas consigned by the East India company, two of the consignees being sons of Gov. Hutchinson. The popular committees were resolved that the tea should not be landed, but should be reshipped to London. A meeting of several thousand men, the most numerous ever held in Boston (Dec. 14, 1778), demanded the return of the ships, but the governor refused a pass. The consequence was that on that evening between 40 and 50 men disguised as Indians repaired to the wharf, and emptied 340 chests of tea, the whole quantity that had been imported, into the bay. In the following February the governor sent a message to the legislature that he had obtained his majesty's leave to return to England, and he sailed on June 1. The privy council investigated his official acts, and decided in favor of "his honor, integrity, and conduct," which decision was approved by the king. He was rewarded with a pension. He published the following valuable works: the "History of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay, from the First Settlement thereof in 1628 until the Year 1750" (2 vols., 1760-'67); a "Brief State of the Claim of the Colonies" (1764); and a Collection of Original Papers relative to the History of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay" (1769). From his manuscripts a volume treating the history of Massachusetts from 1749 to 1774 was prepared by his grandson, the Rev. John H. Hutchinson, of Trentham, England (London, 1828).

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HUTTEN, ULRICH VON, a German scholar and reformer, born in the castle of Steckelberg, Hesse-Cassel, April 20 or 22, 1488, died in Switzerland, Aug. 29, 1523. When 11 years old he was placed in the monastery of Fulda, that he might there become a monk; but when only 15 he ran away from the cloister to the university of Erfurt, where he became intimate with such men as Crotus Rubianus and Eobanus Hesse, Temonius, and many others who were zealously pursuing ancient literature and forming a vigorous opposition to the regular monkish party, which viewed with disfavor studies which were in fact often carried so far as to apparently threaten a revival of heathenism. Here he was supported by his friends and relations. A disease then new to Europe raged in many places, and when it appeared in the summer of 1505 in Erfurt both students and teachers took to flight. Among the former were Hutten and his friend Crotus. It was still deemed necessary for an educated man to be familiar with the scholastic philosophy, and Hutten accordingly studied industriously at Cologne the writings of Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus. This city was the stronghold of the old system, led by the since notorious Ortwein or Ortuinus Gratius, Jacobus Hoogstraten, Arnoldus Tungern, their friend Pfefferkorn, and all who were then termed Dunkelmänner or "Obscurants." Here, in the head-quarters of monkish peculiarities, Hutten collected rich material for the strongly characterized, biting sketches of the Epistola Obscurorum Virorum. Even in Co

logne, however, the new spirit of classic study had found a home under the care of Johannes Rhagius, generally known as Rhagius Esticampianus, who, encouraged by Count Nuenaar, endeavored to form a taste for the works of classical antiquity and what was then termed poetry, a word limited by the Obscurants to pure and ancient Greek and Latin metrical composition. Hutten became his friend and scholar, and, when he was driven away by the dominant party under the accusation of corrupting both youth and theology, followed him to Frankforton-the-Oder, where a new university dedicated to liberal studies was opened April 27, 1506. Among the eminent men here he found an old friend, Eitelwolf von Stein, who had been instrumental as privy counsellor in inducing the margrave of Brandenburg to found the university, and who at once took him under his care. At the inauguration Hutten published his first poem, Carmen in Laudem Marchia, in praise of the mark of Brandenburg. Here he received the degree of M.A., and remained till 1508. The disease which had driven him from Erfurt again seized on him, and in despair he sought health in long, aimless travel. In northern Germany he was everywhere warmly received, but was wrecked on the Baltic and reduced to great poverty. In this condition he went to the university of Greifswalde, and took lodgings with the burgomaster Wedeg Lötz, a rapacious and cruel wretch, who in some way drove him from the town. While flying, the son and servants of Lötz, having laid in wait, caught him, beat him cruelly, and robbed him of all his money and papers, even stripping him naked. In this condition, diseased and wounded, he came to Rostock, where he was well received. Here he wrote a famous satire on Lötz (Klagen gegen Lötz), calling on all the scholars of the new school in Germany to avenge him. In Rostock he lectured on the classics, established intimate relations with the professors, and worked for the interests of the classic school. His work against Lötz soon spread over Germany, and his friends learned from it what had become of him. Crotus Rubianus, now teacher of Latin at Fulda, informed him that his father, who had never forgiven him since he ran away from Fulda, was at heart glad to hear of his growing reputation. "Sometimes he admits that you would have made a bad monk, and then hints a wish that you would study law in Italy." But Hutten could not bring himself to break off his vagabond life. In 1511 he went to Wittenberg, where he published his Ars Versificatoria, regarded in its day as a masterpiece, Thence he wandered, literally at times as a beggar, through Bohemia and Moravia to Vienna. Yet he met with some friends, one of whom, Bishop Stanislas of Turzo, gave him a horse and money. At Vienna he found another patron in Vadian, and here for a time he appears to have been prosperous and courted. Finally arriving at Pavia in April, 1512, Hutten resolved to study law in order to be reconciled

with his father. But 3 months later the city was besieged, and Hutten, who had taken part in the contest, believed himself in danger of death, and wrote his famous epitaph. Plundered of all he possessed by the Swiss troops of the emperor Maximilian, he fled to Bologna. Here his malady returned, and, repulsed by every one, badly treated, and starving, he enlisted as a soldier in the emperor's army. The results of his Italian studies were embodied in the elegant satire of OUTIS (Nemo), in which the subjugation of Germany to Italy was closely criticized, and a decided inclination shown toward the reformers. In 1514, worn out by wretchedness, he left the army and returned to Germany. He was in but indifferent condition to seek to be reconciled to his family; his literary reputation was in those days an effectual barrier to church preferment, and he was identified with the party out of power. An accident now, how ever, led him to the very height of popular fame. Duke Ulrich of Würtemberg had fallen in love with the wife of his cousin Johann von Hutten, and murdered the husband. All Germany sent forth a cry of indignation at the outrage; "the murderer's own defence," says Gervinus, "condemned instead of exculpating him." When Hutten heard of this he was travelling, but his indignation went beyond bounds, and without waiting for a more fitting place he wrote on horseback his "Deplorations," in which he cried for vengeance. He availed himself of this deed to call on German towns to free themselves from ducal tyranny. "He so pointed out to the Germans the tyrant, that he became a by-word." The orations themselves obtained for Hutten the renown of a Demosthenes. But a short time elapsed before Hutten found himself in a new quarrel, ardently defending Reuchlin, who as a scholar was protesting against the wholesale destruction of all Hebrew books for which the Cologne Obscurants were clamoring. With the aid of many friends he published the celebrated Epistola Obscurorum Virorum, a work which aided the reformation more than any other one writing; and previous to this his Triumphus Capnionis, a vigorous book, whose publication was long delayed by the scruples of "the prudent Erasmus." In Oct. 1515, Hutten went again to Italy to study law and regain the favor of his family; but at Rome, having vanquished in fight single-handed 5 Frenchmen, one of whom he slew, he fled to Bologna, which he was soon obliged to quit for a somewhat similar cause, having taken part in a battle between Italian and German students. He visited Ferrara and Venice, but, having published satires against those in power, found it advisable to take refuge in Germany. At Augsburg he was presented by the celebrated Conrad Peutinger to the emperor, who gave him in public the spurs of knighthood, while Constance Peutinger, said to have been the most beautiful girl in Germany, crowned him with laurel. He was then sent by the elector of Mentz on a mission to

Paris, where he established intimate relations with the learned. Retiring to his family castle of Steckelberg, Hutten, having written by way of introduction several epigrams on Pope Julius II., edited the work of Laurentius Valla, entitled De Falso Credita et Ementita Donatione Constantini Magni (1517). This daring book caused a great sensation; Luther himself spoke of it in 1520 in high terms. In 1518 he found a protector in Albert, margrave of Brandenburg, whom he invited in a glowing panegyric to place himself at the head of united Germany. In the same year he accompanied the margrave to the diet of Augsburg, where Luther was to reply to Cajetan. But "Hutten, now the brilliant knight, troubled himself but little as to the poor Augustinian monk;" he was full of a project for uniting the princes of Europe against the Turks, and was fascinated with the idea of becoming an influential statesman. The work in which he preached this crusade he printed himself at Steckelberg in 1519, entitling it, Ad Principes Germaniæ, ut Bellum Turcis invehant Exhortatoria. In it he upbraids the court of Rome and the German nobility. These latter had been previously more fiercely attacked in his "Dialogue of the Court Enemy," in which Hutten boldly assumes a tone like that of modern republicanism. In 1519 he left the margrave to join Franz von Sickingen in the Swabian league against his old enemy Ulrich of Würtemberg. Yet during this war he wrote the "Triad," "the most vehement thing which had hitherto been written against Rome," published his treatise De Guaiaci Medicina et Morbo Gallico, and edited two books of Livy, hitherto unpublished. The war over, he retired to the castle of Sickingen, whence he sent forth the bitterest attacks on Rome. He discovered in the library of Fulda a manifesto of Henry IV. against Gregory VII., and turned its German sentiment to such account that Leo X. demanded him as a prisoner. Driven from his castle by persecution, he took refuge in Ebernburg, whence he again sent forth bold writings addressed even to common soldiers. He now began to write, in prose and verse, in German, and these tracts are among his most daring productions. For a short time he fought in the army of Charles V. at the siege of Metz; and at this time Francis I. offered him the place of councillor at his court with 200 florins a year. Hutten next wandered to Switzerland, and

colampadius led him to Basel, where he hoped for support from Erasmus, who however turned against him, and even took pains to set the council of Zürich against him. Finally Zwingli obtained for him an asylum in the house of the clergyman Schnegg on the island of Ufnau in the lake of Zürich. Here, "worn out by war and suffering, he ended, in view of the Alps, a life which had been so short, so tumultuous, and so full of generous aspirations." Among his other works are: Dialogi, Fortuna, Febris (including the Trias, Mentz, 1520), and his poems (Frankfort, 1538). His collected works were publish