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ed by E. J. H. Münch (Berlin, 1821-'7). An Index Bibliographicus Huttenianus was published by Böcking at Leipsic in 1858, and a new edition of his works in 7 vols. in 1859. Among the most recent and best lives of Ulrich von Hutten is that by Strauss (Leipsic, 1857). HUTTON, CHARLES, an English mathematician, born in Newcastle-on-Tyne, Aug. 14, 1737, died Jan. 27, 1823. He received but an indifferent education, and acquired his knowledge of mathematics without the aid of an instructor. At the age of 18 he became an usher in the village of Jesmond, and some years later the master of the school. In 1760 he removed to Newcastle, where, while teaching, he wrote his "Practical Treatise on Arithmetic and Book-Keeping" (1764). His "Treatise on Mensuration" (1771), and "Principles of Bridges, and the Mathematical Demonstration of the Laws of Arches" (1772), attracted much attention, and led to his being chosen in 1773 professor of mathematics in the royal military academy of Woolwich. He was elected fellow of the royal society, Nov. 10, 1774, and was foreign secretary of that body from 1779 to 1783, when he resigned, owing to an unjust charge that he neglected his duties. While connected with the royal society, Hutton published a large number of papers in its "Transactions," and made all the mathematical calculations for Maskelyne's experiments for determining the mean density of the earth. About 1795 he undertook, aided by Drs. Pearson and Shaw, the labor of abridging the "Philosophical Transactions." The work was completed in 1809, Hutton receiving £6,000 for his share in it. Being compelled by bad health to resign his professorship at Woolwich, he received from the board of ordnance a retiring pension of £500. His principal works, in addition to those above mentioned, are: "Tables of the Product and Powers of Numbers" (London, 1781); "Mathematical Tables" (1785); "Course of Mathematics" (3 vols., 1793); "Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary" (1795). He was also for many years editor of the "Ladies' Diary."

HUTTON, JAMES, M.D., a British natural philosopher, born in Edinburgh, June 3, 1726, died March 26, 1797. He entered the university of Edinburgh in 1740, and began the study of law, which he subsequently abandoned for medicine, attending the requisite classes for 6 years in Edinburgh, Paris, and Leyden, where he took the degree of M.D. in Sept. 1749. He then engaged in the manufacture of sal ammoniac from coal soot, which was carried on in Edinburgh for many years with considerable success. Having inherited from his father a small estate in Berwickshire, he next betook himself to agriculture. He finally removed to his native city in 1768, where he devoted himself exclusively to scientific pursuits, especially the study of geology, and while thus engaged made several important discoveries. In 1795 he published the results of 30 years' study in his "Theory of the Earth," in which he assumes that

heat is the principal agent of the great operations of nature. Later researches in geology have strongly confirmed many of Hutton's views.

HUXLEY, THOMAS HENRY, an English naturalist, born about 1800. He was educated for the medical profession, and applied himself to the study of natural history, became an assistant surgeon in the naval service, accompanied Capt. Stanley's expedition to the eastern archipelago, and made observations on the natural history of the sea, particularly on the anatomy and affinities of the medusæ and mollusca, on which subjects he has written extensively. He succeeded Prof. Edward Forbes in the chair of paleontology in the government school of mines, in connection with which he delivers an annual course of lectures on general natural history. He is also Fullerian professor of physiology at the royal institution. He has recently published a large work with illustrations, entitled "A History of the Oceanic Hydrozoa."

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HUYGHENS, CHRISTIAN, & Dutch astronomer, born at the Hague, April 14, 1629, died there, July 8, 1695. His father instructed him till he was 15. From 1645 to 1648 he studied the mathematics and civil law at Leyden and Breda. His first work, Theoremata de Quadratura Hyperboles, Ellipsis, et Circuli, published in 1651, attracted the attention of Descartes and all the mathematical scholars of France. was soon followed by De Circuli Magnitudine Inventa Nova (1654). In 1655 he went to France, and received the degree of LL.D. from the Protestant faculty of Angers. On his return he turned his attention to the construction of lenses for telescopes. Assisted by his brother, he succeeded in making one with a focal distance of about 10 feet. With this instrument, more powerful than any that had been used before, Huyghens discovered the 1st, now called from its position the 4th, satellite of Saturn. He also first gave a scientific explanation of the ring of that planet. Galileo had said that Saturn was sometimes attended by two globes, one on each side, having no relative motion, and at regular periods entirely disappearing and leaving the planet single. Huyghens discovered that these appearances arose from the broad ring of Saturn being seen obliquely from the earth. In 1656 he published a work on the calculus of probabilities, afterward translated into Latin by Schooten, his instructor in geometry, and reprinted in his Exercitationes Mathematica under the title of De Ratiociniis in Ludo Alea. In 1657 he constructed an instrument to measure time accurately by applying the pendulum to clockwork. His first pendulum clock he presented to the states-general of Holland, and asked a patent for his invention. He discovered the solution of the problem of finding the centre of oscillation of a compound pendulum, or the length of a simple one vibrating in the same time with it, without which solution no conclusion concerning the pendulum could be applied to those clocks in which the pendulums were necessarily com

pound. In his Horologium Oscillatorium (Paris, 1673) there is a full account of his cycloidal pendulum, an interesting treatise on the properties of the cycloid, and a paper De Motu Corporum ex Percussione. During the years 1655-63 he made several journeys to France and England. In 1666 he went again to France, and received at this time a pension from Louis XIV., who also assigned him a room in his library. He stayed in Paris about 15 years, and after some absence returned there again, and wrote many papers, some of which are still in manuscript in the archives of the institute. At the revocation of the edict of Nantes, however, being a Protestant, he left France, and even declined to keep up his correspondence with the academy of sciences, writing only for the royal society of London, of which also he was a member. In 1689 he went to England, principally with a view to make the acquaintance of Newton. In 1695 he lost his mind, so that he had only occasionally lucid moments. To almost all the physical sciences, to mechanics, optics, and astronomy, Huyghens contributed some valuable discovery or some interesting contrivance. The glasses of his telescopes were all made and polished by himself, and he used the most powerful instruments of his time. He was the first to discover the nebulous spots in the sword of Orion and in the constellation of Andromeda in 1656. He also was the first to adapt the telescope to the measurement of small angles, converting it in fact into the instrument since called a micrometer. In his Systema Saturninum he gives a full account of the discovery and mechanism of this instrument. In his Traité de la lumière (Leyden, 1690) he describes a new theory of light, which has since been more fully developed under the name of the undulatory theory. The ingenuity of this theory does not appear so much in the general view, as in his application of it to explain the equality of the angles of incidence and reflection, and the constant ratio subsisting between the sines of the angles of incidence and of refraction, and also the phenomena of double refraction. His investigations on double refraction led him to the important discovery of the polarization of light. His writings were very numerous, and were most of them contributions to the royal society of London, and the academy of sciences in Paris. The most complete edition of his works is that of 'S Gravesande (Leyden, 1724; Amsterdam, 1728).

HYACINTH (hyacinthus orientalis, Linn.), a flower of numerous varieties, and all of great beauty and fragrance. The hyacinth is of oriental origin. To the Dutch is conceded the merit of improving its qualities; and probably they were first acquainted with it in the beginning of the 16th century. About 1700 some 7 or 8 varieties were known in England. Miller in 1720 says that the Haarlem florists had above 2,000 varieties, and their bulbs formed a most valuable branch of commerce. The hyacinth grows readily from the seeds; they are sown in VOL. IX.-26

October, after they have ripened, or in the following March. The new plants usually flower in about 6 years from the time of sowing. The hyacinth as seen in cultivation is of two sorts, viz., single and double flowered. The single hyacinth is preferable in many respects, as it flowers earlier, and its blossoms or bells are sweeter scented and more regular in shape. The double hyacinths greatly vary in size and multiplicity of petals, and some are in this respect of extraordinary beauty. Their cultivation is simple and easy, requiring essentially a soil of sandy loam and vegetable mould 2 feet deep; the bulbs should be planted early enough in October to insure a good supply of fibrous roots before the winter; the beds thus prepared and planted should be protected with leaves, which are to be carefully taken away in the spring when the plants issue from the earth. Some sort of protection from the rain and sun is well, as very warm weather in May is apt to injure the blooming. The hyacinth does well too in the parlor; and the bulbs, placed in large deep pots in good soil in November and kept cool in the cellar until the next February, will blossom finely when brought into the light and warmth. Such bulbs are of little value, however, for another season's use. When used for flowering in water, the water should be kept fresh and pure in the bulb glasses; and when the bulbs are first inserted, the glass should be put in some cool, dark place to promote the growth of the fibrous roots, without a strong supply of which the blossoms are worthless. This process, however, is so unnatural that the plant is destroyed at the end of flowering. It will be found preferable to select the earliest and single kinds for such purposes, as they always do better than the double sorts. A good hyacinth, according to the florist's idea, is one having a strong, tall, and erect stem, supporting numerous flowers in such a manner that the whole may have a compact pyramidal form, with the crown or uppermost flower perfectly erect; the flowers should be large and perfectly double, appearing to the eye rather convex in the centre; the colors should be clear and bright, whether plain red, white, or blue, or variously intermixed and diversified. Strong bright colors are in general preferred. The usual colors of the hyacinth are blue, both pale and dark, red, rosy, crimson, straw-colored or yellowish, called golden, and pure white. There is as great a difference in the readiness with which they flower as there is in the beauty, grace, or even splendor of their blossoms. In cultivating the several varieties, it is well to consult the different floricultural treatises in which their several merits are set forth.

HYACINTHUS, in Greek mythology, son of the Spartan king Amyclas and Diomede, or of Pierus and Clio, or of Ebalus and Eurotas. He was a boy of great beauty and the favorite of Apollo, but was also beloved by Zephyrus, who from jealousy caused his death as he was playing with Apollo, by blowing the quoit of the

god against his head. Apollo changed him into the flower hyacinth, upon whose leaves appear the Greek exclamation of woe, AI, AI, or the letter Y, beginning his name (Yakıνdos).

HYADES, in Greek mythology, nymphs variously described as being from 2 to 7 in number, and bearing 18 names. According to some authorities, Jupiter placed them among the stars in honor of their care of the infant Bacchus; while others say it was to reward them for their long mourning for their brother Hyas, who had been killed by a wild boar.

HYÆNA, a digitigrade carnivorous mammal, most numerous in Africa, but found also in southern and middle Asia, where the genus has probably spread while following the track of armies and caravans. Zoologists are not agreed as to the position of this animal; the older authors place it in the feline family, with which it agrees in the single true molar on each side of both jaws, and in the single tuberculate tooth on each side of the upper jaw only; Waterhouse regarded it as a small divergent group of viverrina or civet cats; Linnæus ranked it in his genus canis; and Hamilton Smith puts it in juxtaposition to the dogs. It seems to be an osculant type, united on the one hand to the dogs by the genus lycaon, and on the other to the civets by the genus proteles (aard-wolf); its general aspect is decidedly canine, as also are most of its habits. The dental formula, according to Owen, is: incisors, canines, premolars, 4, and molars, 24 in all. The disposition of the hyæna is fierce and cowardly, and its habits revolting; it is able to withstand any temperatures and privations, revels in the foulest air, and gorges on the filthiest substances when living prey fails; of powerful form, thick skin, and strong jaws and teeth, the bands of hyaenas fear not the lion and tiger, and will attack even man in the night time. Its appearance is very repulsive; the head is large and truncated, the neck short and stout, the body thick and short, high at the shoulders and declining rapidly toward the tail, a long stiff mane from the nape to the rump, and a short tail; the gait is clumsy, the voice harsh and frightful, the expression of the face malignant, and its body offensive from its carrion food and the strong odor of its anal pouch. The feet are all 4-toed, with strong non-retractile claws fitted for digging, the dorsals and the pairs of ribs 15 or 16, and the lumbar vertebræ 4 or 5; the tibia and fibula are much shorter than the radius and ulna; the tongue is covered with horny papillæ, the irides elliptical above and circular below, the erect ears long and pointed, and mamma 4. The prevailing color is a dismal ochrey gray, with dark stripes and spots. The hyæna is among mammals what the vulture is among birds, the scavenger of the wilderness, the woods, and the shore, and useful in this way in disposing of carcasses which otherwise would pollute the air; often it attacks cattle and disabled animals, prowls in the rear of the larger carnivora, whose leavings it de

vours, and digs up when possible the dead bodies of man and beast; from this last undisputed habit, the hyæna has been regarded as a horrible and mysterious creature, and is the subject of many superstitious fears and beliefs among the Semitic races. Its teeth are so pow erful that they can crack the bones of an ox with ease, and their grip is tenacious to the last degree; were its speed great and its courage equal to its strength, it would be among the most dangerous of the carnivora; it sometimes burrows in the earth or hides in caverns, but generally passes the day in the desert, insensible to the scorching sun. The spotted hyæna (H. crocuta, Erxl.) is the most dog-like of the genus; it is about 4 feet long from nose to base of tail, the latter measuring about 13 inches, and the head about 12; the height at the shoulders is 23 feet; the general color is a dingy whitish gray, with small round brown spots, the muzzle as far as the eyes and lower limbs sooty, and the tail dark; the mane is rather short. It is found in South Africa, and on the coasts of Senegal and Guinea, and with the next species is generally called wolf by the Dutch colonists. It is fierce but cowardly, and will sometimes approach camps and make severe gashes on the limbs and faces of persons asleep; it is said sometimes to drag off children, which from its strength it could easily do; from the resemblance of its voice to a human laugh, it has received the name of the laughing hyæna; it rarely burrows, but occupies the retreats of other animals, prowling about at night. The striped hyæna (H. vulgaris, Desm., or H. striata, Zimm.), a rather larger animal, is found in Africa, Asia Minor, Arabia, and Persia; the head is wider, the muzzle fuller, and the eyes further from the nose, than in the preceding species; the hair is coarse and thick, of a dirty gray color, with transverse dark stripes on the sides and limbs; there is a stiff mane along the back; the habits are the same as those of the spotted hyæna. There are some varieties of smaller size, and one with a skin almost naked, in the Nubian deserts. The brown hyaena, or strand wolf of the Dutch colonists (H. brunnea, Thunb.), is only 4 feet long to the end of the tail, and a little over 2 feet high at the shoulders; the hair is long and shaggy, of a dirty yellow color, with tawny tints on the back and irregular stripes on the sides; it is less in size than the other species, and less destructive to the cattle of the colonists. The hyaenas act very much the part of the wolf of northern climates, being equally fierce, cowardly except at night and when in packs, and annoying to the herdsman by their destruction of sheep and oxen.-There are in Africa certain dog-like animals, the wilde honden of the Dutch, and constituting the genus lycaon (Brooks), which seem to connect the dogs with the hyænas, and which are believed by Hamilton Smith to be partly the progenitors of the mastiff races; the head is short and truncated, the mouth broad, the teeth strong and dog-like; the ears

erect and large; neck long, body short, the limbs slender and highest before; tail short, hanging down, and inflexible; 4 toes on all the feet; pupils round; mamma 8 or 10. They hunt in packs, being swift, active, hardy, with excellent scent and acute sight; they do not burrow. They are found in Africa south of the great desert, and in Arabia and as far as the Indus in Asia. The hunting hymena (lycaon venaticus, Burch.) of the Cape is about as tall as a large greyhound, with long legs; the color is ochrey, white on the breast, with spots of the same edged with black on the neck, shoulders, loins, and croup, with wavy black streaks on the sides; the muzzle and cheeks black, the color passing up on the nape and down on the throat. It hunts in packs both by day and night, frequently destroying sheep, and sometimes surprising cattle, biting off their tails; it is considered untamable. The painted hyæna (L. pictus, Temm.) is by many thought to be a mere variety of the last; it is about 3 feet long, the tail 1 foot more, and 14 feet high at the shoulders; the colors are much the same as in the preceding animal; it hunts also in packs, surprising antelopes, and attacking when hard pressed for food cattle and even man; Rüppel says it looks much less like a hyæna and more like a dog than the L. venaticus. In anterior geological epochs the hyenas were not confined to tropical Africa and Asia, nor to the old world. They appeared in Europe toward the end of the tertiary age, but were most numerous during the diluvial period, and were found in England, Belgium, and Germany; there were about half a dozen species, numerous in individuals, and of a size sometimes superior to the living animal. In the Kirkdale and other caverns of Europe 3 species are found, of which the best known is the H. spelaa (Goldf.). In Asia they were numerous in the Himalaya region, of which the most remarkable is the H. Sivalensis (Cautl. and Falc.). In the caverns of Brazil M. Lund has found abundant remains of a hyena which he calls H. neogæa, mixed with the bones of rodents, peccaries, megalonyx, and other American types, seeming to show that the geographical distribution of animals in the modern faunæ is in no way connected with their ancient distribution. The bones of the caverns bear unmistakable marks of the teeth of hyænas, even if the remains of the latter did not prove their existence; and this animal seems to have been the principal consumer of the great proboscidians and ruminants of the diluvial age.

HYBLA, the name of several cities of ancient Sicily, the most considerable of which were the following: 1. HYBLA MAJOR, situated on the southern declivity of Mt, Etna, near the river Simæthus. It was founded by the Siculi, and was one of those which Ducetius, a chief of that people, sought to unite into a confederacy against the Greeks and Carthaginians. In the time of Cicero, Hybla Major was an opulent municipium, but in that of Pausanias it was a poor decayed place. Its site was probably at

Paterno, where an altar has been discovered dedicated to Venus Victrix Hyblensis. II. HyBLA MINOR, which stood so near Megara that the two cities were often confounded, was likewise of Siculian origin. It was chiefly celebrated for the honey produced in its vicinity.

HYBRID, the offspring produced by the union of two distinct species of animals or plants. It was taught by Buffon, Hunter, and other naturalists of the last century, and is still maintained by many, that such offspring are incapable of producing their kind, and therefore it is concluded that hybridity is a test of specific character. This supposed connection of hybridity with specific character has led those who adopt it to the firm belief in the reality and distinctness of species, while others think that the facts show that the present varieties of vegetable and animal life were derived from comparatively few original types. In birds hybrids are very numerous, especially in the gallinaceous tribes. In plants they are said to be so common, that some botanists maintain that botanical species are only a higher and more permanent type of varieties, and retain only the genera to designate the characters which have usually been attributed to species. Notwithstanding the occurrence of prolific hybrids, occasionally even in a state of nature for a generation or two, it must be admitted that hybridity is by far the most common among domesticated animals and in those unnaturally brought together by human art, and that the capacity for fertile hybridity is in proportion to the aptitude of animals for domestication. The great source of confusion in estimating the value of arguments drawn from these phenomena is the habit of regarding hybridity as a unit, whereas there are degrees in the series. Dr. Morton makes 4 such degrees: 1, that in which the hybrids never reproduce, the mixed offspring ceasing with the first cross, as in most domesticated birds; 2, that in which the hybrids, incapable of reproduction inter se, multiply by union with the parent stocks, as in the ox family; 3, that in which animals of distinct species produce a progeny prolific inter se, as the wolf and dog, and other canines; 4, that which occurs between closely allied species, as among mankind and the common domestic animals. After all, there is no such thing as perfect hybridity, as this seems contrary to the general law of nature; the comparatively few exceptions to this law are generally produced by human intervention both in animals and in plants, and are mostly confined to external modifications, the reproductive system not being so impressed as to perpetuate the mongrel breed for an indefinite period; were it otherwise, there would be no such thing as order and distinct specific forms either in the vegetable or animal world. Even in the most favorable cases among domestic animals, constant attention and frequent crossing with the original species are necessary to perpetuate the hybrids, and to keep them from lapsing into one or the other of the primitive stocks. Too much importance has

been attached to these phenomena both as regards man and the lower mammalia, and the extent of the argument that can be drawn from them is, "that the occurrence of prolific offspring between the different races shows that there is a near affinity between the species." The mania for unnatural crosses in mammals and birds at present prevailing ought to be turned to the profit of science, in elucidating the origin of our domestic animals. There are probably few naturalists now who would maintain that the varieties of cattle, sheep, goats, dogs, fowls, &c., are derived from a single wild original modified by man's care or abuse into the present numerous breeds. As there is no necessity for such a single derivation, since we find several wild species equally entitled to be considered the original, the general belief seems to be that our domesticated animals have been produced by the crossing, natural or forced, of several more or less nearly allied species; in other words, that they are complicated hybrid races, crossed and recrossed with each other, with the wild originals, and with allied species, through the care of man, until the primitive stocks can be no longer ascertained with certainty. These phenomena of partial hybridity, therefore, afford no proof that any one species of animals is the parent of the domesticated races. One of the most interesting questions which has been made to turn upon the phenomena of hybridity is that of the unity of the human race, the varieties of which, more or less prolific inter se, are therefore asserted to belong to one and the same species. Those who would study this subject intimately are referred to the writings of Dr. S. G. Morton of Philadelphia, especially to his paper in the "American Journal of Science and Arts" for 1847, and to his letters to the Rev. Dr. Bachman in the Charleston "Medical Journal and Review" for 1850-51, in which reference is made to the principal authorities on both sides of the question. See also Prichard's "Natural History of Man” (4th ed. 2 vols., London, 1855), and the work of C. Darwin on the "Origin of Species" (London, 1859).

HYDATIDS. See ENTOZOA, vol. vii. p. 225. HYDE, an E. co. of N. C., bordering on Pamlico sound, and drained by Pango river; area, 830 sq. m.; pop. in 1850, 7,636, of whom 2,627 were slaves. It has a level surface, a large part of which is occupied by pine, cypress, and cedar swamps. The products of the pine are the staples of export. The agricultural productions in 1850 were 14,876 bushels of wheat, 332,525 of Indian corn, and 12,879 of oats. There were 10 churches. Capital, Swan Quarter.

HYDE, EDWARD. See CLARENDON. HYDE, THOMAS, an English divine and orientalist, born in Billingsley, Shropshire, June 29, 1636, died in Oxford, Jan. 18, 1703. He studied at Cambridge and Oxford, and became head librarian of the Bodleian library. He succeeded Pococke in 1691 as Laudian professor of Arabic,

and soon after was appointed regius professor of Hebrew. He was interpreter of oriental languages to the court during the reigns of Charles II., James II., and William III. He understood Hebrew, Syriac, Persian, Arabic, Malay, Armenian, and Chinese. The most important of his works is Veterum Persarum et Medorum Religionis Historia (Oxford, 1700; best ed. 1760). A complete edition of his other writings appeared at Oxford in 1767.

HYDE DE NEUVILLE, JEAN GUILLAUME, baron, a French politician of English descent, born at La Charité-sur-Loire, Jan. 24, 1776, died in Paris, May 28, 1857. He was one of the most active and daring agents of the Bourbons after the death of Louis XVI., and mingled in nearly all the intrigues for the subversion of the revolutionary governments. After the 18th Brumaire, in an interview with Bonaparte, he tried to persuade him to restore the Bourbons. He was charged by Fouché with being an accomplice in the infernal machine plot, but indignantly and successfully cleared himself from the accusation. He subsequently removed to the United States, settled in the vicinity of New York, became acquainted there with Gen. Moreau, then an exile, and is said to have been instrumental in persuading him to return to Europe. Early in 1814 he himself returned to France, and was welcomed by the Bourbons, who had just been reinstated on the throne. He was engaged in all the negotiations and transactions which took place during 1814 and 1815, and on the second restoration was elected by his native department a deputy to the chambre introuvable, where he was an uncompromising advocate of the most reactionary measures. In 1816 he was appointed minister plenipotentiary to the United States, and held that office until 1821, when, after being created a baron, he was recalled to France. Being ambassador at Lisbon in 1824, he rescued and restored to power the old king John VI., whom his son Don Miguel had imprisoned. Thenceforth he grad ually estranged himself from the ultra-royalist party. In 1828 he entered the semi-liberal Martignac cabinet as minister of the navy, made several improvements in the colonial system, enforced measures against the African slave trade, and favored the independence of Greece. On the breaking out of the revolution of 1830, he asserted the claims of the duke of Bordeaux to the throne in the chamber of deputies, and resigned his seat on Louis Philippe being selected. From that period he devoted himself mainly to agriculture.

HYDER ALI KHAN, sultan of Mysore, an Indian prince and general, born in Dinavelli, Mysore, in 1718, died Dec. 7, 1782. He was of Arabian descent, and son of a petty chief. Entering the service of the rajah of Mysore in 1749, he rose in the course of 10 years to be commander of the forces, and, having thus the power in his own hands, set aside the rajah with a pension of 3 lacs of rupees, and took possession of the sovereignty. The East India company,

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