year of the Christian era, 4 years after the birth of the founder of the Christian religion, for an account of whose life, doctrine, and death (in the year 33, under the sway of the Roman procurator Pontius Pilate, the possessions of Archelaus having been annexed to the Roman province of Syria) we refer the reader to special articles under the appropriate heads. The religious and literary institutions of the people had in the meanwhile received a remarkable development during the Asmonean period, on the basis of the soferim, and principally under the lead of the successive schools of the hakhamim (scholars) Jose of Zeredah and Jose of Jerusalem, Joshua ben (son of) Perachiah and Nittay of Arbel, Judah ben Tabbay and Simeon ben Shetah, and Shemaiah and Abtalion; and it reached a most flourishing condition under the school of the great Hillel the Babylonian, president of the sanhedrim like all the first of the above named pairs, and the rival school of the austere Shammay, in the reign of Herod. The eminent philosophical book of Ben Sirach and the first book of the Maccabees are the products of the earlier part of that period, while the age of the books of Tobit, Judith, Baruch, and other apocryphal writings, is unknown. The simultaneous literary activity of the Jews in Africa is evinced in the book of Wisdom, by their numerous contributions to Hellenistic poetry and history (Jason, Alexander Polyhistor, Ezekiel, &c.), and especially to Platonic philosophy, from Aristobulus, the Jewish teacher of Ptolemy Euergetes, to Philo, the distinguished deputy of the Alexandrian Jews to the Roman emperor Caligula. The emperors were already becoming the exclusive masters of Palestine. Archelaus was carried captive to Gaul under Augustus (8), and separate procurators ruled Judæa, Samaria, and Idumæa. Philip's possessions were attached to Syria after his death (35) by Tiberius, but afterward given by Caligula to Herod Agrippa, a grandson of Herod, and brother of Herodias, who, being unlawfully married by Herod Antipas, caused the deposition of the latter, and the annexation of his tetrarchy to the dominion of Agrippa, who even succeeded in reuniting for a short time, in the reign of Claudius, the whole of Palestine. After his death (44) his territory was again ruled by procurators, and only a small portion was afterward given to his son Agrippa II. (53). The condition of the country was dreadful. The emperors, at that time the vilest of men, demanded divine honors, their statues were erected in the temple, the procurators grew rich by extortions, the petty Herodian courts shamelessly imitated the licentiousness of the imperial, robbers infested the mountainous regions, impostors and fanatics raised the standard of rebellion, and insurrections led to new oppression, both religious and civil. Nero's rule, and the extortions of his procurator Gessius Florus, finally drove the people to despair. Death to the Romans or to themselves became the cry of the fanatics and the poor. The Sadducees and the rich oppos

ed it in vain, though aided by the troops of Agrippa. The temple of Jerusalem, the ancient capital itself, and numerous strongholds in the country were taken by the insurgents (66). The Roman governor of Syria, Cestius Gallus, who hastened to Jerusalem, was routed near that city. The zealots now organized a general rising. The priest Josephus, the historian, was sent to arm and defend Galilee. But one of Nero's best generals, Vespasian, was already approaching from the north (67); and Titus, his son, brought new legions from Egypt. The Jews fought with Maccabean valor near Joppa, at Mt. Gerizim, in the streets of Gamala, at Jotapat, and other places. But Josephus's army perished in the struggle about Jotapat, and he was made prisoner; Galilee was lost, and civil carnage raged within the walls of Jerusalem between the moderates under the priest Eleazar, the terrorists under John of Giscala, and the volunteers under Simon the Idumæan. Vespasian now advanced and took most of the strongholds (68). The events which followed the death of Nero, however, checked his progress. Vespasian himself being proclaimed emperor by his legions (69), Titus took the command. Jerusalem, Masada, Macharus, and Herodium were still to be besieged. The northern part of Jerusalem, Bezetha, was first taken by the Romans with the external wall. The middle wall, too, fell into their hands, but the defenders, now united and heroically fighting, drove them out. The Roman resolved upon conquering by hunger, and this brought pestilence to his assistance. Hay, leather, and insects were finally consumed; the victims could no longer be buried, but were thrown over the wall. Deserters and fugitives were mutilated by the besiegers or driven back. The castle Antonia, and with it the second wall, were finally taken (June, 70). John and Simon still refused to hear of surrender. In August the temple was stormed, and Titus was unable to prevent its becoming a prey to the flames. The last defenders retired to the fortified upper city, which fell in September. Jerusalem was razed to the ground, its surviving inhabitants were slaughtered by thousands, sold into slavery, or doomed to perish in public fights with wild beasts before Romans and Greeks, at the command of the future amor et delicia generis humani. Herodium, Machærus, and Masada still defended themselves for a time. In the latter the conquerors found only a few children, the last men having died by their own hands. A million of Jews perished in this war, which found an eloquent but partial historian in the learned captive Josephus. The later and still more furious risings of the scattered people in the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian in Cyrene, Egypt, Cyprus, and Palestine, where Bar-Cokeba for years victoriously maintained himself against the Roman generals until he fell with his last stronghold Bethar, are known only from scattered passages full of exaggerations, dictated by hatred on one side and patriotic admiration

on the other. The last insurrection, and the bloody persecutions which followed it, finally broke the strength and spirit of the people. Their leaders prohibited every attempt at insurrection in the name of religion, and were obeyed. Hadrian's Elia Capitolina rose on the sacred ground of Jerusalem, and his decrees forbade the Jews to enter its precincts. Its environs were desolate. The land of Israel was no more; the people scattered all over the world. The previous invasions and conquests, civil strifes and oppression, persecution and famine, had carried hosts of Jewish captives, slaves, fugitives, exiles, and emigrants, into the remotest provinces of the Medo-Persian empire, all over Asia Minor, into Armenia, Arabia, Egypt, Cyrene, Cyprus, Greece, and Italy. The Roman conquest and persecutions completed the work of dispersion, and we soon find Jews in every part of the empire, in the regions of Mt. Atlas, on both sides of the Pyrénées, on the Rhine and Danube. Palestine, however, for some time continued to be a national centre through its schools of religious science, which after the desolation of Jerusalem flourished at Jamnia, Lydda, Usha, Sephoris, Tiberias, and other places, principally under the lead of the presidents of the sanhedrim (patriarchs, nesiim) of the house of Hillel, of whom Gamaliel Hazzaken (the Elder), his son Simeon, his grandson Gamaliel, and great-grandson Simeon, with their celebrated fellow tanaim (teachers or scholars) Johanan ben Zakkay, Eliezer, Joshua, Eleazar, Ishmael, Tarphon, the great Akiba, and others, had been successfully active during the previous disastrous period. The succeeding rabbis (rabbi, my master), Ben Azay, Ben Zoma, the 5 pupils of Akiba, Eliezer, Meir, Jose, Jehudah, Simeon, Nathan, and others, continued their work by public teaching, as well as by collecting, elucidating, systematizing, and further developing the decisions (halakhoth, 'collectively termed Halakhah) of the oral law, which was finally converted into a written code or compendium of teachings (Mishna) by the patriarch Jehudah the Holy and his school, during the mild reign of the Antonines. To this were added the partly supplementary, partly explanatory works, Tosefta, Mekhilta, Safra, and Sifre. These works became the basis of religious study in the subsequent 3 centuries, in Palestine, as well as in Babylonia, where the schools of Sura, Pumbeditha, Nehardea, and others, flourished under more favorable circumstances, the most renowned teachers (in this period amoraim) of both countries being Rab, Samuel, Joshua ben Levi, Johanan, Simeon ben Lakish, the patriarch Jehudah II., Ame, Ase, Abahu, Eleazar, Jehudah, Hunna, Hisda, Nahman, Rabbah, Joseph, Zera, Jeremiah, Abbayi, Raba, Pappa, Ashe, Abina, and Mar bar (ben) Ashe (died 467). After new persecutions by the Christian emperors, which destroyed the schools (353) and the patriarchate (429) of Palestine, and by the Persian kings Yezdegerd II., Hormuz, Firuz, and Kobad in the latter part of the 5th century,

which destroyed the schools of Babylonia, the results of those studies were also collected, though in chaotic disorder, in the two Gemaras or Talmuds (literally, studies), the Palestinian and Babylonian. Other extant products of the time of the tanaim and amoraim were various ethical treatises (Derekh eretz, Aboth, &c.), historical, legendary, and cosmogonal writings (haggadoth, stories, collectively Haggadah, a vast branch), prayers (tefilloth), additions to the Chaldee paraphrase (Targum) of scriptural books, a new calendar, admirably adapted to the religious duties of the people, by Hillel (340),. and some Greek fragments by Aquila and Symmachus. The Chaldee, often with an admixture of Hebrew, was now generally used in literary works, while the people used the various languages of the countries in which they lived. More and more oppressed and degraded by the emperors, of whom only Julian was favorable to his Jewish subjects, and who even attempted to rebuild the temple of Zion, and by the decrees of the councils, the Jews of Palestine once more hoped to recover their independence when they assisted the Persians in conquering Jerusa lem (610), but were soon severely chastised for their rash attempt by the victorious emperor Heraclius. But a new power springing from the Arabian desert was destined to humiliate all the contending parties and sects between the Tigris and the Nile, the Byzantine emperors and the Sassanide shahs, Christians, fire worshippers, and Jews. A new Semitic prophet arose in the vicinity of the Red sea, teaching his disciples and people a monotheism which was to be carried triumphantly over a great part of Asia, Africa, and Europe (622). Mohammed himself after a long struggle conquered the castles of the independent Jews in Arabia, who, living from a very remote period in that country, were masters both of the poetical tongue and the sword of the desert, their warlike Samuel ben Abdiah, among others, being one of the most distinguished early poets of the peninsula. Omar and his generals conquered Jerusalem, Tiberias, Damascus, Antioch, and Alexandria from the Byzantines, and subdued Persia, thus bringing most of the eastern Jews under the rule of Islam. This proving comparatively mild, and the later caliphs favoring every science, Jewish studies revived, especially in Babylonia, where the Jews lived under the immediate rule of a prince of the captivity (resh gelutha), and where their great schools, having been reorganized under the seboraim (thinkers), were made flourishing under the geonim (the eminent), of whom Saadia (died 941), the translator of the Pentateuch into Arabic, and Hai (died 1037), the son of Sherira, and son-in-law of Samuel ben Hofni, are eminent as theological writers, poets, and linguists. Numerous works of Haggadah, now mostly known as midrashim, and ethical writings, were composed; the critical notes of the Masora and the " Targum of Jerusalem" elaborated; the admirable system of scriptural vocalization introduced; talmudical compendiums

written; medical, astronomical, and linguistic studies, and also cosmogonal speculations (cabbala), pursued. An anti-rabbinical sect, beside the extinct Sadducees, the only one which deserves that appellation, was founded about the middle of the 8th century by Anan in Babylonia, receiving from their strict adherence to the letter of the Bible the name of Caraites (Scripturists). Their scholars, Salmon, Jeshua, and Jefeth, flourished in the 10th century. Scientific pursuits also spread among the Jews in Africa, who with slight interruptions enjoyed peace under the Saracenic princes; and among the theological writers of Fez and Kairowan in that period, of whom Nissim and Hananel (both in the 1st half of the 11th century) are the most celebrated, we find the physician and critic Isaac ben Soleyman, the lexicographer Hefetz, and the grammarians Ben Koraish, Dunash, and Hayug. The Arabic was generally used by the scholars.-The political and intellectual condition of the Jews was worse in the Byzantine empire and in the feudal states which arose on the ruins of the western. Deprived of most civil rights, they were now and then bloodily persecuted, as by the Franks and Visigoths in the 6th and 7th centuries, by the Byzantines in the 8th, when many of them fled and even spread their religion among the Khazars about the Caspian sea, and again in the 11th, about which time they appear in Russia, though only for a short time, and in Hungary. More tolerable, however, was their situation in Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia, where they often found protection through the influence of the popes. Bari and Otranto became the principal seats of Jewish learning. The renowned Eleazer ben Kalir and other writers of piyutim (liturgical songs in Hebrew rhymed verse), the historian Josipon, and the astronomer Shabthay Donolo, flourished in Italy in the 9th and 10th centuries, and the lexicographer Nathan in the 11th. From Italy science spread to the cities on the Rhine, to Lorraine and France. In the 11th and 12th centuries we find in Germany Simeon, the author of the talmudical Yalkut ("Gleaning Bag"), the poet Samuel the Pious, and the writer of travels Petahiah; in northern France, Gerson, surnamed the "light of the exiled," the liturgical poet Joseph Tob Elem, the renowned commentators Solomon Isaaki and his grandson Solomon ben Meir, and the authors of the talmudical Tosafoth ("Additions"), Isaac ben Asher, Jacob ben Meir, &e. Spain, after the conquest by the Saracens, who carried thither culture, science, and poetry, was destined to develop the most prosperous and flourishing condition which the Jews enjoyed in the middle ages. Persecutions became rare and exceptional. The Jews enjoyed civil rights and rose to high dignities in the state under the Moorish princes, and were almost as well treated by the Christian monarchs, and their culture and progress in science not only kept pace with their prosperity, but also outlived occasional adversity. In the 10th century we see there the lexicographer

Menahem, the astronomer Hassan, and the rich, liberal, and scientific Hasdai, the friend and phy sician of the caliph Abderrahman III., at Cordova; in the 11th the talmudical scholars Samuel Hallevi and Isaac Alfasi (of Fez), the grammarian Abulwalid, the philosopher David Mokamez, the ethical writer Behay, and Solomon Gabirol, equally celebrated as Hebrew poet and Arabic philosopher; in the 12th the theologian Abraham ben David, the astronomer and geographer Abraham ben Hiya, the poet Moses ben Ezra, the traveller Benjamin of Tudela, the scientific poet Jehudah Hallevi, whose glowing songs rival the beauties and purity of the Psalms, the great critic, philosopher, and poet Aben Ezra, and finally Moses Maimonides, who as a philosopher, as well as writer on the law, by far surpassed all his contemporaries. The diffusion of science among the Jews now attained its height in Europe, as well as in Egypt, whither Maimonides fled after a persecution at Cordova (1157), and where he and his son Abraham officiated as physicians to the court of the sultan. Spain numbered among its vast number of scholars in the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries, the poets Charizi, the Hebrew imitator of the Arabian Hariri, and Sahola; the astronomers Aben Sid, the author of the Alfonsine tables, Israeli, and Alhadev; the philosophical theologians Palquera, Lattef, Caspi, Hasdai, Albo, and Shemtob; the celebrated commentators Nahmanides, Addereth, Gerundi, Behay, Yomtob, and Nissim; the cabalists Todros, Gecatilia, Abelafia, and De Leon. In Provence and Languedoc, where high schools flourished in Lunel, Nimes, Narbonne, Montpellier, and Marseilles, from the 12th to the 15th century, we find the 3 grammarians Kimhi and their follower Ephodi; the poets Ezobi, Jedaiah, and Calonymus; the commentators Zerahiah Hallevi, Abraham ben David, and Menahem_ben Solomon; the philosophers Levi ben Abraham, Levi ben Gerson, and Vidal; the 4 Tibbons, all translators from Arabic into Hebrew, and the lexicographer Isaac Nathan. Italy had in the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries the poets Immanuel, an imitator of Dante, Moses de Rieti, and Messir Leon; the talmudists Trani and Colon; the cabalist Recanate; the astronomer Immanuel; various grammarians and transla tors from Arabic and Latin; and finally the philosopher Elias del Medigo. Germany had in the same period the talmudists Meir, Mordecai, Asher and his son Jacob, and Isserlin, the cabalist Eleazar, and others. The Caraites, too, had a number of scholars, as Hadassi, the two Aarons, and others. During the earlier part of this long period of literary activity in the West the Jews enjoyed peace and prosperity, with various interruptions, in Spain, Portugal, Italy, Greece, the islands of the Mediterranean, in Hungary, especially under the national kings, and in Poland, which hospitably received the numerous exiles from all neighboring countries, under the Piasts, particularly the last of them, Casimir the Great; but there

were none in Muscovy and in the Scandinavian states; and in England, where they appear before the time of Alfred, in France, where only the early Carlovingians, and especially Charlemagne, favored them, and throughout Germany, their condition was in the last degree deplorable. Circumscribed in their rights by decrees and laws of the ecclesiastical as well as civil power, excluded from all honorable occupations, driven from place to place, from province to province, compelled to subsist almost exclusively by mercantile occupations and usury, overtaxed and degraded in the cities, kept in narrow quarters and marked in their dress with signs of contempt, plundered by lawless barons and penniless princes, an easy prey to all parties during the civil feuds, again and again robbed of their pecuniary claims, owned and sold as serfs (Kammerknechte) by the emperors, butchered by mobs and revolted peasants, chased by the monks, burned in thousands by the crusaders, who also burned their brethren of Jerusalem in their synagogue, tormented by ridicule, abusive sermons, monstrous accusations and trials, threats and experiments of conversion, the Jews of those countries offer in their mediæval history a frightful picture of horrors and gloom. In England they had their worst days in the reigns of Richard I., at whose coronation they were frightfully massacred at York (1189), John, Henry III., and Edward I., who expelled them altogether from the realm (1290). From France they were for the last time banished under Charles VI. (1395). Germany, where the greatest anarchy prevailed, was the scene of their bloodiest persecutions, the most frightful of which took place in the cities on the Rhine during the great desolation by the black plague, which depopulated Europe from the Volga to the Atlantic (1348-50). Pointed out to the ignorant people as having caused the pestilence by poisoning the wells, the Jews were burned by thousands on the public squares, or burned themselves with their families in the synagogues. Almost every imperial city had a general persecution of the Jews. The Swiss towns imitated their neighbors, almost all banishing their Jews. With the growing influence of the inquisition the Jews of southern Europe, too, suffered the same fate. The protection of the popes being gradually withdrawn, they were banished from the cities of Italy into separate quarters (ghetti), and obliged to wear distinctive badges; persecutions became more frequent; in 1493 all the Jews of Sicily, about 20,000 families, were banished. In Spain, during a long drought in 1391-'2, the Jewish inhabitants were massacred in many cities. The condition of the Jews grew worse in the following century, until their extirpation from the whole country was determined upon, and, after repeated but fruitless attempts at conversion by the stake, finally carried into effect by Ferdinand and Isabella (1492). More than 70,000 families sought refuge in Portugal, where for a large sum of money the fugitives were allowed

to remain for a few months, in Africa, Italy, Turkey, and other countries. Not the 5th part of them survived the horrors of compulsory expatriation, shipwreck, and subsequent famine. The feeling observer may find a compensation in the fact that while these events happened propitious winds carried three small caravals across the Atlantic to a new world, whose enervating treasures were destined to assist the inquisition in undermining the power of the oppressors, and whose future institutions were to inaugurate an era of freedom to the descendants of the oppressed. The Jews of Portugal were banished soon after (1495) by King Emanuel, being robbed of their children under 14 years of age, who were sent to distant islands to be brought up as Christians. The numerous converted Jews of the peninsula and their descendants were still persecuted for more than two centuries by governments, inquisitors, and mobs. These persecutions, which eventually carried the bulk of the European Jewish population into the provinces of Poland and Turkey, similar events in the East during the crusades, a long series of persecutions in Germany, and in central and southern Italy in the 16th century, and bloody massacres by the revolted Cossacks under Chmielnicki in the S. E. regions of Poland, together with a general and minutely developed system of petty oppres sion, extortion, and degradation, to which the Jews were subjected in most parts of Europe during the 250 years following their expulsion from the Iberian peninsula, could not but exercise a disastrous influence upon the culture and literature of the people. The spirit of cheerful inquiry, study, and poetry which distinguished the Spanish-Provençal period, was gone. The critical knowledge and use of the Hebrew was neglected, the study of the Talmud and its commentaries became the almost exclusive occupation of the literary youth, and cabalistic speculations replaced philosophy, producing in Poland various schools of religious enthusiasts called Hasidim (pietists). A bold Turkish Jew, Shabthay Tzebi, who, like the Persian Aldaud or Alroy in the 12th century, was proclaimed by his cabalistic followers the expected Messiah of Israel, found numerous adherents even in various parts of Europe (1666), whose delusion was destroyed only by his compulsory conversion to Mohammedanism. Literature and science, however, still found scattered votaries, especially in northern Italy, Turkey, and Holland; and beside the great talmudists, theologians, or commentators of this period, Don I. Abarbanel, I. Arama, J. and L. Habib, Mizrahi, O. Bartenura, O. Sforno, I. Luria, T. Karo, the author of the talmudical abridgment or code Shulhan arukh, E. Ashkenazi, Alsheikh, S. Luria, M. Isserels, M. Jafeh, Sirks, S. Cohen, Lion of Prague, E. Lentshitz, J. Trani, J. Hurwitz, H. Vital, S. Edels, Y. Heller, Shabthay Cohen, A. Able, D. Oppenheimer, the collector of the best Hebrew library (now in Oxford), Tzebi Ashkenazi, H. Silva, J. Rosanis,

D. Fränkel, J. Eybeschütz, J. Emden, H. Landau, Elias of Wilna, &c., we find the philosophers and men of science Bibago, S. Cohen, Amatus, Almosnino, De Castro, A. Zacchuto, J. del Medigo, M. Hefetz, and Nieto; and among the poets, grammarians, critics, lexicographers, and historical writers, De Balmes, Elias Levita, A. Farissol, Solomon ben Melekh, Jacob ben Hayim, Gedaliah Jahiah, A. de Rossi, De' Pomi, D. Gans, S. Arkevolte, Lonsano, Manasseh ben Israel, the defender of the Jews before Cromwell, S. Norzi, S. Luzzato, Leo de Modena, S. Mortera, J. Orobio, Shabthay ben Joseph, B. Mussaphia, De Lara, J. Cardoso, J. Abendana, S. Hanau, M. H. Luzzato, J. Heilprin, Azulai, and others. Beyond the limits of the Turkish empire there was scarcely any trace of Jewish literature in the East, though there were and are still numerous Jewish communities in Persia, northern Arabia, Independent Tartary, and Afghanistan, as well as scattered colonies, mostly of more or less mixed race and religion, in India, China, Cochin China, Yemen, Abyssinia, and other parts of Africa, partly of very ancient date, partly founded by escaped Portuguese and Spanish New Christians, some of whom also settled in parts of Brazil and Guiana during the occupation by the Dutch. In Europe the last of the three great religious struggles, against paganism, against Mohammedanism, and between the contending Christian sects, all of which were destructive to the Jews, was terminated by the peace of Westphalia (1648). Catholicism was triumphant in the south and in France, Protestantism in the north and north-west. The greater persecutions of the Jews now ceased. They became flourishing in the republics of Holland and Venice and their dependencies, were readmitted into England by Cromwell (having also entered Denmark and returned into France), spread with the Dutch and English to various parts of America, reëntered Russia under Peter the Great (to be expelled afterward), were admitted in Sweden, and were protected and often employed in high stations by the sultans of Turkey and Morocco. In Germany and Switzer. land, where the struggle was not terminated by any decisive triumphs, the medieval treatment of the Jews was continued longest, its worst features being maintained and developed in Austria (excepting in the reign of Joseph II.), where down to the revolution of 1848 the Jews were excluded from all civil rights, numerous professions, and various provinces, districts, towns, villages, and streets, paying beside a tax for toleration in Hungary, in spite of the remonstrances of the legislatures, a tax upon their sabbath lights in Galicia, and a residence tax when visiting Vienna; while their houses in Moravia were often searched in the night of the sabbath for the purpose of surprising the returned Jewish peddlers who had been secretly married before the extinction of all older brothers, which was prohibited by a Pharaonic law. The general progress of freedom was promoted in the age of philosophy by the appearance of Spinoza and

Mendelssohn (1729-'86) among this long despised people. The influence of the latter upon Jews and Christians through his works, example, fame, and friends (the great Hebrew poet Wessely, Euchel, Löwe, Friedländer, &c., among Jews, and Lessing, Dohm, Abt, Nicolai, Engel, Ramler, &c., among Christians), was immense; and his admirers could say: "Between Moses (the lawgiver) and Moses (Mendelssohn) there was only one Moses (Maimonides)." Progress now became general among the Jews, and the noble philosopher lived to see the first dawn of freedom in the land of Franklin and Jefferson. The great revolution in that of Voltaire and Rousseau came next, and the triumphs of republican and imperial France destroyed the mediaval institutions on the Rhine and Po. Liberty, crushed in Poland by the Russians, when 500 of Kosciuszko's Jewish volunteers fell fighting to the last on the ramparts of Praga (1794), was successively victorious in the West. Proclaimed in the United States and France, the rights of the Jews were recognized in Holland, Belgium, Denmark, parts of Germany, Canada, and Jamaica; in 1848-'9 throughout Germany, Italy, and Hungary; and finally in Norway and England. Among the most zealous defenders of the rights of the Jews were the Frenchman Grégoire, the Pole Czacki, the German Welcker, the Irishman O'Connell, the Englishman Lord John Russell, the Italian D'Azeglio, and the Hungarian Eötvös, all Christians; the Jews by descent Borne and Disraeli, and the professing Jews Jacobssohn, Tugendhold, Riesser, Philipssohn, Montefiore, and Crémieux. The revolutionary movement of 1848-'9 proved the immense progress of the Jews as well as of public opinion since Mendelssohn and Lessing. The Jews Crémieux, Goudchaux, and Fould (now minister of state) were among the ministers of the French republic; Pincherle was a member of the provisional government in Venice; Jacobi of Kōnigsberg was the leader of the opposition in the Berlin parliament; Riesser was vice-president of that of Frankfort; Dr. Fischhof stood at the head of affairs in Vienna after the flight of the court; Meisels, the rabbi of Cracow, was elected to the Austrian diet by Polish patriots; and Hungarian barons and counts willingly fought under Jewish officers of higher rank, of whom the adjutant of Gen. Nagy-Sándor, Freund, afterward became Mahmoud Pasha during the war in Turkey. The subsequent reaction, as in Austria, where it was checked by the events of 1859, was mostly temporary, and the Mortara case in Italy in 1858 has excited a very general expression of opposition to the antique legislation by which it was decided. Of the vast number of Jewish writers after Mendelssohn we mention only a few: the talmudists Jacob of Dubno, Jacob of Slonim, Pick, Jacob of Lissa, Bonet, Eger, Sofer, Chajes; the Hebrew poets, philologists, or critics, E. Luzzato, S. Cohen, Satanow, Wolfsohn, Bensev, Pappenheim, Troplowitz, Heidenheim, Löwisohn, S. Bloch, Simha of Hrubieszow, Jeitteles, Landau, Reggio, Perl, N. Krochmal,