from the Iceland moss. The cattle are some times fed with crushed fish bones when grass is wanting. The deprivations which the people suffer when ice or storms prevent them from going out to sea fishing, are of the most serious kind, and not unfrequently engender disease, if not actual starvation. Iceland has 821 churches, 184 ministers, and one bishop, all Lutheran. Common schools are connected with all the churches, but there is only one college on the island, at Havnefiord. At Reikiavik, the seat of the government, there is a library containing 10,000 volumes, and an observatory. Three or four journals are published regularly in different parts of the island.-The executive government is in the hands of a governor and 3 deputy governors, one for each of the departments into which the island is divided, all appointed by the king of Denmark. Each county, of which there are 20, has its court, from whose decision there is an appeal to the supreme court at Reikiavik. The legislative power is intrusted to the althing, which assembles once in 2 or 3 years, and upon all of whose acts the king possesses the privilege of an absolute veto. The althing is composed of 26 members, 6 being appointed by the sovereign, and one chosen from each county by the people. The governor, the chief justice, and the executive secretary are also entitled to seats. The journals and laws are published immediately after the close of each session, and distributed among the people. The total receipts of the government in the fiscal year 18567 were 31,995 Danish dollars, and the expenditures 52,437, the deficit being paid by the home government. This difference, however, is rapidly decreasing; for in the last fiscal year the receipts rose to 33,473 dollars, while the expenditures sunk to 44,626. The receipts are derived from taxes on the fisheries, property taxation, and the rent of crown lands. The commerce is small. The leading articles of import are rye, barley, flour, coffee, liquor, tobacco, sugar, salt, beans, iron, coal, hemp, and tar. In 1855 were imported of corn (all kinds), 40,688 Danish barrels; liquor, 447,699 quarts; coffee, 426,980 lbs.; sugar, 457,231 lbs.; tobacco, 108,880 lbs.; salt, 20,342 barrels; coal, 32,000 chaldrons. The imports of 1855 were carried to Iceland by 125 ships, 13 of which were English, Norwegian, and Spanish, the remainder being Danish. They were consigned to 90 different mercantile houses, of which a little less than one half were foreign houses. The chief exports are fish, fresh, salted, and dried, wool, tallow, cattle, sheepskins, horses, wild fowl, feathers, eider down, Iceland moss, and sulphur. In 1855 were exported of fish (all kinds), 7,705,280 lbs.; wool, 1,596,323 lbs.; tallow, 932,906 lbs.; mittens and socks, 110,000 pairs.-Iceland was discovered by Naddod, a sea rover, in 860. Its colonization was commenced in 874 by Ingolf, a Norwegian chief. In the latter part of the 9th century a great revolution took place in Norway. Harold the Fairhaired, a ruler of one of those petty kingdoms which then divided that country into a score

of independent realms, was enabled by consummate statesmanship and great military skill to subdue all his brother monarchs. The successor of the new sovereign, St. Olaf, became a convert to Christianity, and the conquered kings and chiefs were subjected not only to civil oppression but to religious persecution. The haughty chieftains, who clung to the faith and freedom of their fathers, were forced into rebellion and exile. The wealthier ones, who were able to make the distant voyage, sought refuge in Iceland; and before 930 the island contained many thousand hardy and intelligent settlers, who adopted, with some modifications, the form of government under which they had lived at home. By the influence of Ulfljot, the most prominent Icelander of his day, the whole island was brought under the rule of one great legislative body called the althing, which met first in 930, and thereafter annually, in the plains of Thingvalla in the south. The executive power was intrusted to a lagmadur, or president, chosen by the national assembly. A code of jurisprudence was compiled, which was amended at various times, and in which the system of trial by jury was for the first time fully developed, the territorial rights of each inhabitant were strictly defined, and the powers and privileges of the priesthood, a class which was generally identical with the highest civil rank, were carefully marked out. The republic endured till the middle of the 13th century, and forms the golden period of Icelandic history. It was under the republic that the Icelanders maintained an important commerce with the mother country. Their adventurous navigators penetrated through the Mediterranean to the Black sea on the one hand, and, on the other, discovered and settled the sterile coast of Greenland, and are supposed to have made voyages to Vinland or the southern coast of New England 5 centuries before Columbus. Their warriors served in the body guards of the Caesars of Byzantium, and fought under the banners of the earliest Muscovite czars. Their skalds or poets and their chroniclers visited all the northern courts from Novgorod to Dublin, and formed a literary class which kings delighted to honor. A series of statesmen of great ability ruled or influenced the national councils, among whom were Thordur Gell, Njal, Skaptur, Haflidur Marsson, Bergthor, Snorri the Good, and Einar Thveræing. Christianity was introduced in the year 1000, and was soon established by the althing as the national religion. In the latter half of the 12th century jealousies began to spring up among the party leaders. These were carried to such an extent during the first half of the following century, that resort was often had to arms. These difficulties resulted in rendering the island an easy prey to the Norwegian kings, who had long looked upon it with covetous eyes. But the loss of its independence, though the greatest, was not the only evil which Iceland was now compelled to undergo. Severe pestilences raged and destructive eruptions of

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darson (988-1012), Hallfredur Ottarson (died 1014), Thordur Sigvaldaskald, and Thorleifur Hakonarskald. The 11th century was very prolific of poets; we have Arnorr Thordarson, Einarr Helgason, Eirikur, Gisli Illugason, Oddur, Ottarr, Sighvatur, Skuli Thorsteinsson, Sneglu-Halli, Hallar-Steinn, Steinn Skaptason, Stufur Blindi, Thjodolfur Arnorsson, Thorarinn, and Thordur Kolbeinsson. The 12th century presents the names of Einarr Skulason, Bödvarr, Hallbjörn, Hallur, Ivarr Ingimundarson, and a host of others. In the 13th century we find scarcely any names but those of Einarr Gilsson, Gudmundur Oddsson, Ingjaldur Geirmundarson, and Olafur Thordarson, showing that the loss of liberty had begun to affect the labors of the muse. Nor were the historians and romancers less numerous. The sagas properly fall into two classes, the fictitious and historical. Among the former are the Völsunga Saga, Nornargests Saga, the Vilkina Saga (narrating the exploits of Diederich of Bern, and thus belong ing to the same heroic cycle as the Heldenbuch and Nibelungenlied), Hálfs Saga, Saga of King Hrolf Kraka and his Champions," "Saga of King Ragnar Lodbrok" (which contains the celebrated Lódbrókarkoida, or "Death Song of Lodbrok"), Frithiofs Saga, Hervarar Saga, Oervar Odds Saga, and Snorro Sturleson's "Younger or Prose Edda." Some of these are in part historical in their character, but it is difficult to distinguish the true from the false. Far more valuable as well as more numerous are the sagas of the historical class. They consist of histories in the largest sense of the word, of local and family histories, and of biographies. Of those which relate to Iceland, the most noted are the Islendingabók, by Ari Thorgilsson (1068-1148); the Landnamabók, a detailed account of the settlement of the island; the Kristni Saga, a narrative of the introduction of Christianity into Iceland; Njáls Saga, a classic composition; Gunnlaugs Ormstungu Saga; Viga Glums Saga; Egils Saga, the biography of a renowned poet and chieftain; Kormaks Saga; Eyrbyggja Saga, an abstract of which has been published by Sir Walter Scott; Laxdala Saga; Sturlunga Saga, a history of the race of the Sturlungar, so important in Icelandic history; and Grettis Saga. The chief sagas relating to other countries are: the Orkneyinga Saga, a history of the Orkneian jarls; the Færeyinga Saga, relating to the Färöes; the Jomsvikinga Saga, an account of the sea rovers, whose seat was at Jomsburg near the mouth of the Oder; the Knytlinga Saga, a history of the Danish kings from Harald Blaatand to Canute VI.; the sagas of Olaf Trygvason, one by Oddur (died 1200), and the other by Gunnlaug; the saga of St. Olaf; the Heimskringla, or "Chronicle of the Norwegian Kings," by the celebrated statesman Snorro Sturleson; and various minor sagas relating to Scandinavia, Russia, Great Britain, and Greenland. The most elaborate codes of law were the Grágás, Jarnsida, Jónsbók, and Kristinréttur. Many of the works enumerated in this

list are masterpieces of style, and are still read with delight by the peasant in his turf-roofed cabin under the shadow of Hecla, and by the selfexiled Icelandic scholar in the university halls of Copenhagen. This meagre list also shows the attention paid to the culture of letters in a remote corner of the world, at a time when the whole continent of Europe was sunk in barbarism and ignorance.-The second or modern period of Icelandic literature by no means commences with the termination of the old literature; a long time of utter mental inactivity followed, and the 15th and 16th centuries produced scarcely any thing but a few unimportant religious books. In the 17th century the knowledge of the ancient literature and glory of the island began to revive. Foremost in the movement were Arngrimur Jonsson (Jonas, 15681648), Gudmundur Andræ (died 1654), Runolfur Jonsson (died 1654), Arni Magnusson (Magnæus, died 1730), and Thormodur Torfason (1636-1719). The last named, better known under his Latinized name of Torfæus, was especially zealous in his efforts to disseminate a knowledge of the early history of Iceland. In theology, Gudbrandur Thorlaksson (died 1627), under whose direction the first complete edition of the Icelandic Bible was issued, Bishop Thorlakur Skulson, and Jon Vidalin (1666-1720), the author of a popular collection of homilies, were the eminent names; while jurisprudence was represented by Pall Vidalin (1667-1727). But the true revival of letters dates from the middle of the 18th century, and was coincident with the commencement of an increase in population. During the last hundred years no other nation can show so large a proportion of literary men. Finnur Jonsson (1704-'89), author of an elaborate ecclesiastical history of the island, which has been continued by Petur Petursson (born 1808), Hannes Finsson (1739'96), Jon Jonsson (born 1759), and Arni Helgason (born 1777), were eminent theologians. Antiquities, philology, and the old literature have been largely illustrated by Halfdan, Einarson (died 1785), the author of an Icelandic literary history, Björn Haldorssen (died 1794), the compiler of a large Icelandic-Latin lexicon, which was edited by Rask, Jon Olafsson (1731-1811), S. T. Thorlacius (1741-1815), Hallgrimur Scheving, G. J. Thorkelin (1752-1829), Finnur Magnusson (1781-1847), and Konrad Gislason (born 1808). An elaborate history of the island, in continuation of the Sturlunga Saga, has been written by Jon Espolin (1769-1836). The poetical literature of the period has been rendered remarkable by the names of Jon Thorlaksson (1744-1819), translator of the "Paradise Lost," Bjarni Thorarensen (1786-1841), Jonas Hallgrimsson (1807-45), Sveinbjörn Egilsson (17911852), translator of the Iliad and Odyssey, Benedikt Gröndal (born 1826), and many others. But the attention of the Icelanders has been largely given to political economy, and the result has been a rapid and marked improvement in the economical condition of the country. Par

ticularly active in this respect have been Jon Eyriksson (1728-'87), Stephan Thorarinsson (1754 1823), Magnus Stephensen (1762-1833), Bjarni Thorsteinsson (born 1781), Thordur Sveinbjarnarson (born 1786), Baldvin Einarsson (180133), Jon Jonsson (born 1806), Pall Melsted, and Jon Sigurdsson (born 1811). In natural history we find recorded the names of Eggert Olafsson (1726-'68), whose tour through Iceland in company with Bjarni Palsson is still one of the most interesting works on the subject, O. J. Hjaltalin (1782-1840), Jon Thorsteinsson (born 1794), and J. J. Hjaltalin (born 1807). Among the younger writers, most of whose political opinions are liberal, are Gisli Brynjulfsson (born 1827), Jon Thordarson, and Magnus Grimsson. The series of transactions published by the Lardoms-Lista Félag in the latter part of the 18th century, and the numerous volumes issued within the past 25 years by the Islenzka Bókmenntafelag, or society of literature, are of great value. ICELAND MOSS (cetraria Islandica, Acharius), a lichen common in the N. of Europe and America. It consists of a tuft of deeply divided and dentate-ciliate margined, leaf-like, cartilaginous stems, flattened out and of a lighter color at their base, but above incurved at their edges, so as to render them channelled; in general color they are of a dark olive brown. The fruit (apothecia) is borne upon the extremities and sides of the broadest branches, and is very broad and flat with elevated borders. This fruitful condition is only to be met with in the alpine regions of our northern mountains; when the plants occur upon the lower hills, and more especially in dry exposed pastures, they are uniformly infertile. It is possible that these last mentioned forms may yet prove to be distinct species; to settle this point, however, the occurrence of the apothecia is very desirable. A very bitter principle is resident in the alpine forms as well as in the Iceland moss of the shops; but this is almost wanting in the campestral sorts. As an alleviative to pulmonary complaints the Iceland moss is well known; the principal part of the stock used in medicine is brought from Iceland and Norway. After the intense bitterness, which readily yields to cold water, has been extracted, boiling water is to be poured upon the mass, when, by keeping up a considerable heat and by several hours' steeping, an abundant and soothing mucilage is given out, and can be used with freedom, the drink being made palatable with a little sugar. Hooker says that after being purged of its bitterness the lichen "is dried, reduced to powder, and made into a cake or boiled and eaten with milk, and eaten with thankfulness too, by the poor natives" of those countries where it grows abundantly, "who consider that the very stones yield them bread." The mucilaginous character is owing to a great abundance of lichen starch. Even the bitter principle is tonic and useful in the treatment of disease. Similar alimentary substances are found in other lichens, resulting from the presence of this kind of starch.

ICHNEUMON (Gr. xvevw, to track), a viverrine carnivorous animal, of the genus herpestes (Illiger). The cheek teeth are ; the body is long and the legs short; head small and pointed; ears short and rounded; feet 5-toed, with sharp semi-retractile claws; a large anal pouch, in which the vent opens. Of the several species described, the best known is the ichneumon of Egypt (H. ichneumon, Linn.), known also as Pharaoh's rat. It is a little larger than a cat, with a gait more like a marten, and the long tail ending in a divergent tuft; the color of the muzzle and paws is black, and the fur of the body with each hair alternately ringed with brown and dirty yellow. It is an inhabitant of N. E. Africa, especially Egypt. It was adored by the ancient Egyptians for its antipathy to the crocodile, whose eggs it destroys in great numbers; they saw in it the representative of a benign power engaged in the destruction of one of their most troublesome enemies. Its natural food consists of rats, reptiles, birds, and eggs, but it has no special antipathy to the crocodile; the stories about its running into the open mouth of this reptile, passing into the stomach, and destroying it by eating its way out, are absurd fables. It is itself destroyed by foxes and jackals. The ichneumon is frequently domesticated in Egypt, where it is used like the cat in ridding houses of rats and smaller pests; it forms attachments to persons and places, and recognizes with signs of pleasure the caresses of its master. The mangouste of India (H. mungos, Linn.) is a little smaller than the ichneumon, of a paler and more grayish color, and with a pointed tail; it possesses a singular antipathy to serpents, which it destroys whenever it can, not hesitating to attack even the deadly cobra de capello; against the bite of the latter it is said to find an antidote in the ophiorrhiza mungos, a root which is considered in Ceylon as a specific against the cobra's bite in man. It is as mischievous, and in the same way, as the polecat and weasels. The garaugan of Java (H. Javanicus, Geoffr.) is chestnut brown, with yellowish white spots; its habits are the same as in the other species, and it is expert in burrowing; it is easily domesticated, and is used for destroying rats.

ICHNEUMON FLY, an extensive tribe of the pupivorous family of hymenopterous insects, of great importance in the economy of nature on account of their destruction of insects injurious to vegetation, and very interesting from the peculiar manner in which this purpose is effected. They are perfect parasites, depositing their eggs within the body of living insects, which are devoured by the larvae hatched within them. Their forms are various, but they generally have an elongated body, with a terminal, long, divided, bristle-like appendage, and filiform antenna which have a constant vibratory motion; the prevailing colors are black, rufous, and yellow, with lines and spots of white. The head is prominent; the mandibles corneous; the wings 4, of thin membrane and horny ribs or