ity more thoroughly than did this genial divine. The mystics he eulogized with Baader, and the theosophic Boehm he declared to be not merely fantastical, but also profound. The rationalists had no more violent foe than this prophet of the universal reason; he defended against them the truths of the incarnation, of sin, and of redemption. Conservative rationalism was indignant; the popular philosophy was dumb with amazement. There were many that said the long conflict between philosophy and faith was now to be adjusted; the absolute idealism was to do it, and it was to be done in Berlin, "the city of absolute reflection," the "university of the centre," the "chosen people of God in philosophy." Enthusiastic students declared that the refined ideas of the "Logic" were "the new gods" of a new Pantheon. The triumph of his system seemed to be coming on. In 1829 he was rector of the university, and administered its affairs with the punctuality and painstaking of an accomplished disciplinarian; not a single student was punished for "demagog ism," though one unlucky wight was taken up for wearing a French cockade, which in his simplicity he imagined to be made up of the colors of the mark of Brandenburg. In 1831 Hegel published the first volume of a new edition of his "Logic," and revised for the press his lectures on the "Proof of the Being of God." In the autumn he commenced his course in the university with more than usual freshness and vigor. But the fatal cholera attacked him in its most malignant form on Sunday, Nov. 13; his wife watched over him, ignorant to the last of the nature of the disease. On the next day at 5 o'clock he was dead. Nov. 14 is the anniversary not only of the decease of Leibnitz, the greatest German philosopher of the 18th century, but also of him whom his pupils not unfitly called the Aristotle of the 19th century. He was buried near Fichte and Solger, and over his remains was celebrated the worship of genius by disciples almost idolatrous. His works were soon collected in 18 volumes, for the most part carefully edited. Beside the treatises of which we have spoken, there are 3 volumes of essays and reviews; 3 on." Esthetics;" 3 on the "History of Philosophy;" 2 on the "Philosophy of Religion;" one on the "Philosophy of History." Rosenkranz has written a full biography, from which we have derived many of our statements. Every subsequent philosophical writer of note in and out of Germany has criticized his system. The fullest accounts are in the histories of philosophy by Michelet, Erdmann, and Willm; the ablest criticisms are those of Schelling, Trendelenburg, Ulrici, Weisse, Fischer, and the younger Fichte. A. Véra published in Paris Introduction à la philosophie de Hegel (1855), and is now (1860) translating the "Logic" into French-a difficult task. Hegel said to Baron Reiffenberg, who asked him for a succinct account of his system: "Monsieur, it is impossible, especially in French." M. Ch. Bénard has partly analyzed and partly translated the

"Esthetics" in French (5 vols., Paris, 1840'52). This was the best edited of any of his posthumous works, by Prof. Hotho. The "Subjective Logic" was translated into English by H. Sloman and J. Wallon, and published in London (1855). His "Philosophy of History," the most intelligible of his works, translated by J.Sibree, forms a volume of Bohn's "Philosophical Library" (1857). The Hegelian literature would already make a collection of several hundred volumes. In Holland, Van Ghert, Prof. Sieber, and Dr. Krahl espoused his system; Heiberg in Copenhagen; Tengström and Siendwall in Finland; a Hungarian wrote to him that he was learning his "Logic" by heart.Altogether apart from the main peculiarity of his system, the impulse which this extraordinary thinker communicated to the various departments of philosophy was almost unexampled in the same space of time. He compelled men to think for him or against him. His "Logic" led to the treatises of Werder, Weisse, Erdmann, Trendelenburg, and Ulrici, as well as to a total revision of Schelling's system. His "Psychology" was followed by Massmann, Wirth, Erdmann, Rosenkranz, and the "Anthropology" of Daub. His "Ethics" gave a more philosophical model for this science, and produced the treatises of Von Henning, Michelet, Vatke, Daub, and Wirth, and influenced the systems of Chalybäus, Fichte, and Rothe. In the Philosophy of History" he made the boldest attempt to construct the whole according to the evolution of the idea of freedom. His "Esthetics" almost transformed the science, and led to the works of Weisse, Hotho, Rötscher, and Vischer. In the "History of Philosophy" he first introduced the general method of treatment, followed by Marbuch, Michelet, Bayrhoffer, Barchou de Penhoen, Willm, Zeller, and Schwegler; his criticism of Aristotle has contributed more than any other to the understanding of Aristotle's real metaphysical system. Even in the "Philosophy of Nature," though many of his views are not proved by observation, and though his deductions are often arbitrary, he has yet added to the materials for a truly philosophical construction of the cosmos; he early advocated Goethe's theories about colors and the metamorphosis of the plants. In jurisprudence, the conservative tendencies of his system were soon annulled by his more advanced followers, and the most radical German revolutionists of 1848 expressed their extreme views in the dialect of the absolute idealism; as e. g. Ruge in the Hallische Jahrbücher (1838). But it was in theology, and in the relations of his system to Christianity, that the chief conflicts were engendered. Soon after his death his school fulfilled the master's prediction, and illustrated his theory of antagonisms. His lectures on the "Philosophy of Religion" were twice edited; first in a conservative sense by Marheineke, and then in a revolutionary sense by Bruno Bauer. Passages in his "History of Philosophy," from his lectures

of 1805, were declared to be much more pantheistic than his matured views; Strauss thought that he was opposing Hegel until these lestures were published. The conflicting elements came out at first in discussions upon 3 points, the personality of God, immortality, and the person of Christ. Strauss's "Life of Jesus" (1835) brought the latter decisive point to an articulate statement; and in his subsequent controversial writings he ranged the school, after the French political pattern, in 3 divisions, the right, the centre, and the left. This division was first made in reference to Christianity. The right wing asserted that Hegelianism and orthodoxy were harmonious; Göschel, Gabler, Erdmann, Marheineke, and Bruno Bauer for a time stood here. The middle was represented by Rosenkranz, Gans, and Vatke. On the left stood Michelet, Strauss, Ruge, the radicals in church and state, and those who denied immortality, the divine personality, and the incarnation as specific in the person of Christ. The Tübingen school of F. Ċ. Baur has worked in the interests of a destructive criticism. Against all these modifications of the system, the great body of the German divines, especially the school of Schleiermacher, have protested from the beginning, evidently believing that the tendencies of Hegel's speculations were pantheistic, whatever judgment might be formed about his personal opinions; and the progress of discussion has confirmed these fears. His restless and aspiring school soon ceased to be a solid phalanx. Herbart's realism contended, not unequally, against this extreme idealism. The Prussian government called Stahl the jurist, and Schelling, to Berlin to counteract the philosophy it had so carefully nurtured. Schelling in 1834 had already pronounced against his old colleague; and when nearly 70, in 1841, he taught his positive philosophy in opposition to what he called the "abstractions" and the merely "negative system" of his greatest rival, his only peer. A new school, represented by the younger Fichte, Weisse, Chalybäus, Fischer, Wirth, and Ulrici, in the Zeitschrift für Philosophie, since 1837, and in a prolific literature, have been waging incessant warfare against the absolute idealism, and the pretensions of pantheism. The absolute idealism has already taken its place in history as the crowning development of one great philosophic tendency. It has not proved itself to contain the whole of philosophy. It has not solved the ultimate problems of human thought and human destiny. It has not shown how the infinite and the absolute can pass over into the finite and the relative. Neither its principle nor its method has been proved to be sufficient to explain the universe. Philosophy is not yet exhausted. Faith is not yet lost in sight. The destructive results of pantheism have led to a reaction, in the midst of which we now stand.

HEGIRA (in Arabic, also hedshra, flight), the flight of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina, from which event the Mohammedan era is dat ed. The hegira is usually accounted to have

occurred on the 16th (or, by astronomical reckoning, on the 15th) of July, 622, although Abulfeda makes it 68 days, and others 2 months, later. The Mohammedan year being shorter than our own, the difference between the Mohammedan and Christian calendars is constantly varying, and any date in the one can be transferred to the other only by a special adjustment. Of all cultivated nations, the Mohammedans alone have reckoned time exclusively by the moon, without regarding the sun or seasons. Their year consists of 12 lunar months, or of between 354 and 355 days. The beginning of their year, therefore, retrogrades at the rate of more than 11 days annually through the different seasons, and the circle of retrogradation is completed and a whole year gained once in about 33 years. Therefore 33 Mohammedan years nearly correspond to 32 Christian years, and to transfer a Mohammedan date to our era it is necessary first to subtract 1 from it for every 33 years, and then to add 622 to it. Thus, to find the year corresponding to 1276 of the hegira: 1276-38 (i. e., 1276 ÷ 33) + 622 = A. D. 1860.

HEIBERG, PEder Andreas, a Danish dramatist and political writer, born in Vordingborg in 1758, died in Paris, April 30, 1841. After finishing his studies, he lived 3 years at Bergen, and subsequently at Copenhagen. Banished for liberal opinions in politics in 1799, he went to Paris, obtained office under Napoleon as chief of the bureau of foreign relations, and accompanied Talleyrand to many foreign courts. He was accustomed to make extracts from foreign journals, to which comments were added in the imperial cabinet previous to publication in the Moniteur. He retired on a pension in 1817, when he applied himself to journalism, writing for the Revue encyclopédique on Scandinavian subjects. His literary reputation rests chiefly on his comedies, many of which still keep the stage.-Heiberg's wife, THOMASINA CHRISTIANA BUNTSEN, who remained in Copenhagen when he was banished, and remarried, was the author of a series of lively novels, regarded by the Danes as the best on Danish society ever written.-JOHAN LUDVIG, a dramatist and metaphysician, son of the preceding, born in Copenhagen, Dec. 14, 1791. He was graduated at the university in 1809, having previously written several excellent dramas. He began the study of medicine, and devoted himself to southern literature, the result of which latter study appeared in a Latin essay on the Spanish drama. At the age of 22 he received from the government a travelling pension, which enabled him to pass 3 years with his father in Paris, where he studied the French drama. In 1822 he became professor of Danish at the university of Kiel, and after 3 years went to Berlin to study the philosophy of Hegel. In 1829 he was made royal dramatic poet and translator. In 1830 he was appointed professor of æsthetics, logic, and literature at the military high school. In 1831 he married Johanna Louise

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1825. In the same year he went to Heiligenstadt, where on June 28 he is said to have been baptized into the Lutheran church. Heine had taken his legal degree in compliance with the will of his uncle, who had made it a condition of giving him his education, and who, finding him determined to pursue literature, generously aided him. He now went to Hamburg, where in 1826 he published the Harzreise, the first part of his Reisebilder. Very few books ever excited in Germany such an extraordinary sensation. In 1827 he went to Munich to edit with Dr. Lindner the Politische Annalen. In 1829 he returned to Berlin. Here occurred the famous quarrel with the poet Platen, who, having satirized Heine in an insolent manner, received in return the most bitter sarcasm and withering abuse. Literature affords no parallel to this cynical retort. From Berlin Heine went in 1831 to Paris, having become so obnoxious as a liberal writer to the Prussian government that he was obliged to choose between exile and imprisonment. From this time until 1848 his influence in Germany was very great, and he acquired in France the reputation of being the wittiest French writer since Voltaire. In 1831 he wrote a series of articles on the state of France for the "Augsburg Gazette," which were collected and published both in French and German. In 1833 appeared his "History of Modern Literature in Germany," also known as The Romantic School," and L'Allemagne, a characteristic and daring work, in which he attacked with relentless severity the romantic writers, the philosophers, and in fact very nearly everybody. "This book produced a perfect storm of fury in Germany." Democrats, pietists, Teutomaniacs, and state officials united in denouncing it; while in France no other work has done so much to stop the current of romanticism. In 1840 Heine published a violent work on his former friend Börne, then only recently dead. Börne, while akin to Heine as a spirited writer, had aroused in the latter a dislike, founded partly on jealousy of Borne's political popularity, and partly on personal antipathy caused by literary attacks. The work, whatever its provocation, was but little to Heine's credit, and involved him in a duel with the husband of a virtuous and highminded lady who was stigmatized in the book as having entertained illicit relations with Börne. About 1841 Heine was married to "Mathilde," of whom he often speaks tenderly in his writings. In 1843 he paid his last visit to Germany to see his mother (who died in Hamburg, Sept. 3, 1859, aged 88), for whom he maintained to the last the warmest affection. His public bitterness and literary cruelties were in strange contrast with his personal good qualities. He was generous, even self-sacrificing, especially to poor literary men, and during the cholera risked his life by remaining to nurse a sick cousin. In 1847 he was attacked by a painful spinal complaint, which tormented him almost without cessation until his death. By his own request all religious rites were omitted at his funeral.

The bold infidelity, the reckless licentiousness, and the unqualified faith in the world and the flesh, which characterized Heine's life as well as his writings, were counterbalanced by such sincere belief in his own doctrines, such sympathy for suffering, and such acute perception of the beautiful in every form, that it is difficult for those unfamiliar with the social developments of modern continental European life and literature to appreciate his true nature or position. He received from the French government an annual pension of 4,000 francs from 1836 to 1848, but did not criticize it the less severely in his writings. In his later years Heine returned from unbounded scepticism, if not to an evangelical faith, at least to theism, the Bible being constantly read by him, and appearing to him, as he said, like a suddenly discovered treasure. As he still retained his love of paradox and of mystification, the real degree of his conversion became the subject of no little controversy and comment.-His works, in addition to those mentioned, are: Franzōsische Zustände (Hamburg, 1833); Der Salon (1834); Shakspeare's Mädchen und Frauen (Leipsic, 1839); Neue Gedichte (Hamburg, 1844); Ballade über die Schlacht von Hastings and Atta Troll (1847); Romanzero (1851); Doctor Faust, ein Tanzpoem (1851); Vermischte Schriften (1854); Les aveux d'un poète de la nouvelle Allemagne, in the Revue des deux mondes (1854). A complete edition of his works, embracing a considerable number of sketches and poems never before given to the world, was published by John Weik (Philadelphia, 1856). There is also a French version of his works executed by Heine himself, under the revision of Gérard de Nerval and others. The following works on Heine have appeared since his death: Heinrich Heine, Erinnerungen von Alf. Meissner (Hamburg, 1856); H. Heine's Wirken und Streben, by Strodtmann (1857); H. Heine, Denkwürdigkeiten aus meinem Leben mit ihm, by Steinmann (1857); Ueber H. Heine, by SchmidtWeissenfels (1857). English versions of Heine's works are: the "Pictures of Travel," translated by Charles G. Leland (Philadelphia, 1856); the "Book of Songs," by J. E. Wallis (London, 1856); the "Poems of Heine, complete, translated in the Original Metres," by Edgar Alfred Bowring (London, 1859).

HEINECCIUS, JOHANN GOTTLIEB, a German jurist, born in Eisenberg, Saxony, Sept. 21, 1681, died in Halle, Aug. 31, 1741. He was educated at Leipsic and Halle, where he became professor of philosophy in 1710, and of law in 1721. He afterward removed to Frankfort-onthe-Oder, and there filled the chair of law till 1733, when he returned to Halle, and resuming his former office, held it till his death. The works of Heineccius are very numerous and of great value to the legal student. A collective edition of them was published at Geneva under the title of Opera ad Universam Jurisprudentiam, Philosophiam, et Literas Humaniores Pertinentia (9 vols. 4to., 1769).

HEINECKEN, CHRISTIAN HEINRICH, a precocious child of Lübeck, who could speak at the age of 10 months, recite the principal events of the Old Testament 2 months afterward, and who had committed to memory the history of antiquity when little over 2 years old, beside speaking fluently Latin and French. The child died in 1725, before it had attained the age of 5. HEINEFETTER, SABINE, a German singer, born in Mentz in 1805, has performed with great success in the principal cities of Europe. Her sister CLARA, married to Mr. Stöckel, was also a woman of fine vocal abilities, but became a lunatic, and died in the Vienna asylum, Feb. 23, 1857. The youngest sister, KATHINKA, made her début in Paris in 1840, was engaged at the Brussels opera in 1842, but became unpopular there in consequence of a duel which had originated between two young Parisian lawyers while supping at her house, and which had ended fatally for one of them. She retired from the stage in 1857, and settled at Freiburg, Baden, where she died Dec. 20, 1858.

HEINICKE, SAMUEL, a German teacher of the deaf and dumb, born at Nautzschutz, near Weissenfels, Prussia, April 10, 1729, died in Leipsic, April 30, 1790. (See DEAF AND DUMB, vol. vi. p. 501.) He published 10 works, the greater part of them having reference to the instruction of deaf mutes, though 2 or 3 were on theological topics.

HEINROTH, JOHANN CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH AUGUST, a German physician and writer on psychology, born in Leipsic, Jan. 17, 1773, died there, Oct. 26, 1843. He studied both theology and medicine, and after practising the latter profession was appointed in 1812 to the chair of psychical therapeutics in the university of Leipsic, and in practice devoted himself to curing the insane. His general theory was that mental aberration, passion, and vice originate principally in a badly conducted life, and can only be perfectly cured by a complete moral reform. He was the author of many valuable works on psychology, insanity, &c.

HEINSE, JOHANN JAKOB WILHELM, a German author, born in Langewiesen, SchwarzburgSondershausen, in 1746, died in Mentz, June 22, 1803. His first publication was a very free translation of Petronius Arbiter, followed by Laidion, an apotheosis of the voluptuous and beautiful in art, in the form of Laïs the Greek courtesan. Heinse defended himself against the charge of indecency, while Goethe, impressed by the extraordinary merit of Laidion, apart from its immorality, praised it highly. In 1776 he left Gleim to accompany Jacobi to Düsseldorf, whom he there assisted in editing a periodical entitled Iris. After living for some time in Italy in pursuit of art and pleasure, in 1782 he went with the artist Kobel to Naples, and returned with Angelica Kauffmann to Rome. Travelling to Germany, principally on foot, he became librarian to the elector of Mentz, and published the famous romance of Ardinghello. This was succeeded by Anastasia, a romance

consisting principally of problems in chess and scenes turning on the game; and this by Hildegard von Hohenthal, the conclusion of Ardinghello. In addition to the above, he wrote Sinngedichte (Halberstadt, 1771), and translations of the "Orlando" of Ariosto, and of the "Jerusalem Delivered."

HEINSIUS, ANTONIUS, grand pensionary of Holland, born in 1641, died at the Hague, Aug. 13, 1720. He was an intimate friend and con fidential agent of Prince William III. of Orange and during 40 years was the moving spirit of Dutch politics. When William after the peace of Nimeguen sent him to Paris to maintain his claim to the territory of Orange, and the liberties of the Calvinists there, he spoke so freely to Louvois that the minister threatened him with the Bastile. After William became king of England (1689), Heinsius managed for the king, and greatly to his satisfaction, the affairs of Holland, and was instrumental in rendering the states-general favorable to friendly action with England. The celebrated grand alliance on the subject of the Spanish succession, between the emperor, the kings of England, Prussia, and Denmark, Holland, the duke of Savoy, and the elector of Hanover, against Louis XIV. and Philip V., was in great measure due to the exertions of the grand pensionary. The defeats of Blenheim (1704), Ramillies, and Turin (1706), with their results, compelled Louis XIV. to open negotiations. He made overtures to Holland; but Heinsius answered that the Hollanders were inseparably bound to their allies, and exacted as a preliminary condition the recognition of the right of the house of Austria to the Spanish succession. To this France refused to accede; the war was continued disastrously for her, and in 1709 her application was renewed, and met with the same response. Louis XIV. now consented to treat on this basis, and negotiations were commenced; but the allies demanding still greater sacrifices, he renewed the war, and after the defeat of Malplaquet (1709) conferences were again opened at the castle of Gertruydenburg and continued unsuccessfully for 4 months, Heinsius obstinately adhering to his terms. France, everywhere beaten, was in great danger when, in 1711, Queen Anne of England dismissed her whig ministry, displaced Marlborough, and secretly offered peace to Louis XIV. The congress of Utrecht, Jan. 12, 1712, resulted in England's ceasing hostilities, but Prince Eugene, the Hanoverians, and the Dutch persevered in the war, and took Quesnoy, July 3. The defeat of the allies at Denain (July 24) changed the whole state of the war. In a few days several important places were recaptured, and armistices were separately concluded with England (Aug. 19) and Portugal (Nov. 7). Yet notwithstanding these reverses, Heinsius resisted with all his characteristic firmness, doing all in his power to prevent a general peace. In spite of his efforts, one was agreed upon and signed at Utrecht (April 11, 1713), but the signature of Heinsius was the last affixed. It is said that