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Portugal. With a firmness and discretion remarkable for her years, Isabella opposed this summary disposition of her person, saying that "the infantas of Castile could not be given in marriage without the consent of the nobles of the realm;" and Henry laid aside his selfish project, but only to take up another still baser. An insurrection, headed by the marquis of Villena and his uncle, the archbishop of Toledo, had been stirred up partly by the belief of many nobles that the princess Juana (often known as la Beltraneja), to whom the king had caused the oath of fealty to be taken, was the offspring of an amour between the queen and the royal favorite Beltran de la Cueva. The confederates proclaimed the transfer of the sceptre from Henry to his brother Alfonso, and collected an army to support their cause. Henry sought to detach the chief conspirators by marrying Isabella to the brother of the marquis of Villena, the profligate Don Pedro Giron, grand master of the order of Calatrava. The high-spirited princess vowed to plunge a dagger into Don Pedro's heart rather than submit to such dishonor, but the grand master died suddenly on his journey to the nuptials. Two years later (1468) Alfonso died, and the insurgents offered the crown to Isabella; but she refused it, and an accommodation was soon effected with Henry, by the terms of which the queen was to be divorced, and Isabella was recognized as heir to Castile and Leon, with the right to choose her own husband, subject to the king's approval. Isabella's claim to the succession was soon afterward solemnly ratified by the cortes. Henry, however, paid little regard to the terms of this agreement, and made another effort to force her to marry the king of Portugal. Policy and affection inclined her to the suit of Ferdinand, prince of Aragon, and, incensed at her brother's threats of imprisonment, she now resolved to take matters into her own hands, and returned the Aragonese envoy a favorable answer. Ferdinand signed the marriage contract at Cervera, Jan. 7, 1469, guarantying to his consort all the essential rights of sovereignty in Castile and Leon. Henry at once despatched a force to seize his sister's person, but Isabella escaped to Valladolid, and sent word to Ferdinand to hasten the marriage. The young prince, unable to procure an escort, as his father was then at war with the insurgent Catalans and utterly bankrupt, travelled in the disguise of a servant with 6 companions to Osma, escaping the troops of Henry posted to cut off his progress, and thence journeyed in more fitting state to Valladolid, where the marriage ceremony took place, Oct. 19, 1469. Henry now declared Isabella to have forfeited all the advantages guarantied by the previous treaty, and proclaimed Juana his lawful successor. The kingdom became divided by two hostile factions, Henry receiving the countenance of France, but Isabella gradually winning the affections and allegiance of the Castilians by her virtues and sagacity. At length, on Dec. 11, 1474, the king died, and 2 days later

Isabella was proclaimed queen at Segovia. Most of the nobles swore allegiance, but the party of Juana was still powerful, and it was not until after a war with Alfonso of Portugal, who had been affianced to Juana, that the queen's authority was fully recognized. From this time her career was trully brilliant. She applied herself to reform the laws and internal administra tion of the realm, to encourage literature and the arts, and to modify the stern and crafty measures of her husband by the influence of her own gentle and elevated character. Though the life and soul of the war against the Moors, in which she personally took part, even wearing armor, which is still preserved at Madrid, she was opposed to the cruelty which was then the established policy toward that people; and if she decreed the expulsion of the Jews from Castile, and gave a reluctant consent to the introduction of the inquisition, it was from a conviction that the safety of the Catholic faith demanded this sacrifice of her private feelings. The encouragement of Christopher Columbus is the deed by which she is best known to posterity, and the squadron with which he discovered America was equipped at her expense. She opposed the reduction of the Indians to slavery, and when a cargo of these captives was sent by Columbus to Spain, she ordered them to be transported back to their own country. With the aid of Cardinal Ximenes she reformed the religious orders, establishing thereby as firm a discipline in the church as she had already introduced into the state. Neither wealth nor station ever shielded criminals from her displeasure, and the sword of justice fell with equal certainty upon the nobility, the clergy, and the common offender. The nasculine intellect, the feminine charms, and the rare virtues of Isabella have been a favorite theme for historians of all subsequent times, and the affection in which all her subjects held her person is still cherished throughout Spain for her memory. The sudden deaths of Don Carlos, Don Pedro Giron, and her brother Alfonso, so opportunely for her interests, left no stain of suspicion upon her. For Ferdinand she always entertained the warmest affection, which was not always faithfully returned. Her genuine piety colored every action of her life. In person she was equally beautiful as in character. She had a clear complexion, light blue eyes, and auburn hair. She had 5 children: Isabella, married to Emanuel of Portugal; Juan, a virtuous prince, who died in 1497, aged 20; Juana, who married Philip, archduke of Austria, and was the mother of the emperor Charles V.; Maria, who espoused Emanuel after the death of her sister; and Catharine, the wife of Henry VIII. of England. (See FERDINAND V.)

ISABELLA II. (MARIA ISABEL Luisa), queen of Spain, born in Madrid, Oct. 10, 1830. She is the eldest daughter of Ferdinand VII. and his 4th wife, Maria Christina. The question of her succession to the throne caused in Spain a bloody civil war and disorders whose

evil results have endured to the present day. Her father, having no son, repealed (March 29, 1830) the Salic law, introduced into Spain by Philip V., and named the expected offspring of his 4th marriage to succeed him, thus excluding his brother Don Carlos, who was then heir presumptive by virtue of that law. Ferdinand dying, Sept. 29, 1833, Isabella, then only 3 years old, was proclaimed queen. Don Carlos took up arms, supported by a large body of adherents, known as Carlists. The contest gradually assumed the worst form of civil war, the clergy taking sides with Don Carlos, while the queen's party was identified with that of the exaltados, liberals, or constitutionalists; the queen mother, who had taken the title of regent, having guarantied a constitution to Spain. The young queen was supported by the majority of the people, and in 1834 it was almost unanimously agreed by the legislative cortes that Don Carlos and his descendants should be for ever excluded from the Spanish throne; a decree which was confirmed by the constituent cortes in 1836. Peace was concluded, Aug. 29, 1839, at Bergara, and Don Carlos fled to France, Sept. 15. Meanwhile Gen. Espartero had acquired great power, placing himself in direct opposition to government. The two parties of moderados, or conservatives, and exaltados, or liberals, continued to divide the people, and between these vacillated the queen regent. The ministry of Martinez de la Rosa was succeeded by that of Mendizabal, who, compelled by liberal insurrections in Madrid and Saragossa, modified the constitution, enlarged the electoral law, and introduced other reforms. But the juntas, still dissatisfied, demanded the constitution of 1812, which was finally extorted by the insurrection of Madrid, June 18, 1837. To these troubles, productive of great misery and confusion in all Spain, succeeded the great insurrections of Barcelona and of Madrid in 1839, and the flight of the queen mother into France, Oct. 10, 1840. Espartero now became head of the government, and on May 8, 1841, was declared regent, and Arguelles became tutor of the queen. An unsuccessful rising in favor of Maria Christina was made at Pampeluna by Gen. O'Donnell, and an attempt by Gens. Concha and Diego Leon to get possession of the young queen's person and buy the adherence of the army was frustrated. Espartero was finally compelled by an insurrection of the friends of Christina and the radicals to abdicate. For a short time the guardianship of the queen was in the hands of Gen. Castaños; but the cortes, by advancing the majority of the queen 11 months, placed her on the throne, Nov. 10, 1843. The return of Christina was followed by the military dictatorship of Narvaez, the promulgation of antiliberal laws, and a state of siege. On Oct. 10, 1846, Isabel was married to her cousin, Don Francisco de Assis, duke of Cadiz, and son of the infante Francisco de Paula, brother of Ferdinand VII., while at the same time her sister Maria Ferdinanda Luisa was married to the

duke of Montpensier, son of the French king Louis Philippe. The queen established alliances with Austria and Prussia, and sent an army to aid the pope. In July, 1850, she gave birth to a son, who died almost immediately. Narvaez was removed in Jan. 1851, and was succeeded by Bravo-Murillo. On Nov. 20 of the same year the queen gave birth to a daughter, Maria Isabella Francisca; on Nov. 28, 1857, to a son, Francisco de Assis Fernando' and' in Dec. 1859, to another daughter. On Feb. 2, 1852, while going with her new-born daughter to church, she was attacked and slightly wounded by a priest named Merino, who was shortly after executed. This event was turned to account by the conservatives, who procured the dissolution of the cortes, and the adoption of repressive measures. Several liberal generals having been banished, on July 28, 1854, Gens. O'Donnell and Dulce headed a military and civil insurrection in Madrid, and succeeded in reestablishing a liberal government. The queen mother fled again to France, and the queen proclaimed an amnesty, recalled and restored exiles, opened a new cortes, and legalized the sale of church property. In 1856, an attempted coup d'état by O'Donnell, and the suppression of revolts in the south of Spain, gave the queen more power, reestablished the constitution of 1845, and recalled Narvaez. This induced the most reactionary measures, which in turn brought about a year later the fall of the Narvaez cabinet and the formation of a new ministry of a little more liberal character (Oct. 1857). O'Donnell has been prime minister since July 1, 1858, and is now (Feb. 1860) commander of an army sent to invade Morocco. The queen is beloved by her subjects, but her conduct since her alliance with a prince whose hand was forced upon her by the intrigues of Louis Philippe, and who is said to be affected with an infirmity which unfits him for the conjugal state, has proved injurious to her reputation.

ISABELLA OF ENGLAND. See EDWARD II. and III.

ISABELLA OF VALOIS. See ELIZABETH OF VALOIS.

ISABEY, JEAN BAPTISTE, a French miniature painter, born in Nancy, April 11, 1767, died April 18, 1855. He studied historical painting under David, but commenced his career by making portraits in crayons. About 1800 he determined to apply the principles of high art to miniature painting, and in 1802 executed an extensive work, representing the first consul reviewing his troops in the court of the Tuileries. This established the artist's reputation, and thenceforth, as long as he could paint, he remained at the very head of this branch of his art. Napoleon I., with whom he had been intimate in his youth, appointed him his miniature painter in ordinary, and the members of the Bonaparte family and the marshals and great dignitaries of the empire sat to him, beside many sovereigns and statesmen of Europe, of whom he painted a greater number than any contem

porary artist. His Table des maréchaux, on a large slab of porcelain, representing Napoleon surrounded by his most famous generals, is a good specimen of his large portrait pieces. His picture of one of the conferences at Vienna, whither he had followed Maria Louisa on the abdication of Napoleon in 1814, is valuable from the number of historic portraits it embraces. He subsequently visited the Russian court at the invitation of the emperor Alexander. He continued in favor with successive dynasties in France, and died full of honors. His likenesses are remarkable for their exactness, and are executed with force as well as delicacy.

in 1821 the editors of the Médaille constitutionnelle, and in 1822 Gen. Berton and Lieut. Col. Caron, condemned to death for endeavoring to restore the empire. In 1824 he defended Armand Carrel. In 1826 he obtained a decree annulling the sentence passed on Bissette, Fabien, and Volny for circulating in Martinique a pamphlet on the condition of the free blacks in the French West Indies. After the revolu tion of 1830 he was at first appointed director of the Bulletin des lois, an unprofitable post, which he soon resigned, when his friend Dupont de l'Eure, minister of justice, employed him in a non-official capacity, and through his influence ISÆUS, one of the 10 Attic orators, born at he became a member of the court of cassation, Chalcis, lived between 420 and 348 B. C. He Aug. 27, 1830. In October he was elected to went at an early age to Athens, was instructed the chamber of deputies, where he sustained the in oratory by Lysias and Isocrates, composed ju- ministry of Lafitte and Dupont de l'Eure. The dicial orations for others, and founded a school ministry of Casimir Périer sent him back into of rhetoric in which Demosthenes is said to the opposition, where he remained for 16 years. have studied. In antiquity 64 orations were In 1834 he discovered a diplomatic document ascribed to him, of which 11 are extant, all of on which was based the rejection of the bill for them relating to disputed inheritances. The the ratification of the treaty with the United best separate edition is that by Schömann (8vo., States. In the same year he founded a society Greifswalde, 1831). There is an English trans- for the abolition of slavery in the French cololation by Sir William Jones (London, 1794). nies. In 1838 the mulattoes of the colonies had a medal struck in his honor. Immediately after the revolution of 1848 Isambert was elected to the constituent assembly, where he advocated the closing of the clubs, though still maintaining his liberal principles. After 1849 he devoted himself to legal literature, and also published s number of antiquarian works.

ISAIAH, the first of the great Hebrew prophets, son of Amoz, flourished under kings Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, from about 760 to 710 B. C. Ahaz was consoled by his prophecies when King Rezin of Damascus and Pekah of Israel warred against Judah. When Sennacherib, king of Assyria, appeared before Jerusalem in the reign of Hezekiah, Isaiah foretold the destruction of his army. The leading themes of his prophecies are the captivity in Babylon and the return from it, and the universal reign of justice. His eloquent style and sublimity of thought give him the highest rank among the prophets. Many critics suppose the latter portion of the book of Isaiah (chap. xl. to lxvi.) to be by some author of the time of the captivity, whose name is unknown. Among the most important commentators are Lowth (London, 1775), Dr. A. Alexander (2 vols., New York, 1846-7), Barnes (2 vols., New York), Gesenius (3 vols., Leipsic, 1820), Hitzig (2 vols., Heidelberg, 1833), and Drechsler (3 vols., completed by Delitsch and Hahn, 1857).

ISAMBERT, FRANÇOIS ANDRÉ, a French politician and jurist, born in Aunay, Eure-et-Loire, Nov. 30, 1792, died in Paris, April 13, 1857. He was graduated at the college of Chartres, and during his legal studies assisted Gail, lecturer on Greek literature at the college of France, by preparing for him the maps of his great atlas to Herodotus and Strabo. In 1818 he was admitted an advocate before the councils of the king and in the court of cassation. During his professional career he aided in compiling the Recueil général des lois Françaises from 420 to 1789, published the Collection des lois de la restauration de 1814 à 1827, and was associate editor of the Bibliothéque historique and of the Courrier Français. He was a liberal in politics, and in 1818 he defended Dr. Aubry,

ISAURIA, in ancient geography, a district in Asia Minor, bounded by Phrygia, Lycaonia, Cilicia, and Pisidia, containing few towns, and known to the ancients chiefly by the marauding excursions of the Isauri, who dwelt in its mountain fastnesses. The Romans sent an army against them in 78 B. C. under P. Servilius, who reduced them to submission and gained the surname of Isauricus. As they continued their depredations, the Romans undertook to check them by confining them within a circle of fortresses. In the 3d century A. D. the Isaurians and Cilicians united themselves into one nation, and one of their chiefs, Trebellianus, dared to assume the title of Roman emperor, but was conquered and put to death. They were formidable to the Byzantine emperors, and two of their race, Zeno (474-'91) and Leo III. (717–241), rose to the Byzantine throne. The capital of Isauria was Isaura, at the foot of Mt. Taurus.

ISCHIA (anc. Enaria and Inarime), an isl and in the Mediterranean, at the N. entrance of the bay of Naples, belonging to the kingdom of the Two Sicilies; area, 26 sq. m.; pop. 24,000. Its coasts are steep and rocky, and its centre is occupied by the volcano of Epomeo, 2,500 feet above the sea, whose last eruption was in 1801. There are also 12 smaller volcanoes. The intervening valleys are of extraordinary fertility, and produce corn, wine, and fruits in abundance. Its warm baths, the most celebrated of which are those of Casamicciola and Lacco, sre much frequented, and, with its salubrious cli

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mate and luxuriant vegetation, make it a favor-
It has 4
ite resort in every season of the year.
small towns, Ischia, Foria, Casamicciola, and
Lacco. In 1807 it was captured by the English
and Sicilian troops.

ISCHL, or ISCHIL, a fashionable German wa-
tering place, capital of the district of the Salz-
kammergut, Upper Austria, situated on the
river Traun, in the centre of 3 valleys, sur-
rounded by picturesque mountains, 50 m. from
Linz and 44 m. from Steyer; resident pop. about
2,000; annual visitors, 1,000. In the vicinity
of the village are extensive salt works, estab-
lished in 1822. It contains several churches,
schools, and elegant bathing establishments. A
suspension bridge crosses the Traun, at the junc-
tion of the Ischl. It is a favorite resort of the
Austrian nobility and of the present emperor
of Austria. The Austrian premier Schwartz-
enberg and the Russian ministers Nesselrode and
Meyendorf met there in 1850, and the emperor
of Austria and the king of Prussia in 1851.

ISÈRE. I. A river of Europe, which rises in
Savoy, flows W., N. W., and S. W. into France,
when it turns nearly S. and proceeds in this
direction to below Grenoble, where it bends to
the N. W., and again within a short distance
to the S. W. Having passed St. Marcellin, it
enters the department of Drôme, and falls into
Its entire length
the Rhone near Valence.
is about 180 m., and it is navigable for more
than 80 m. The Isère is narrow but deep;
and its waters are always of a blackish tint,
owing to the débris which it receives from the
slate quarries of the Tarrentaise. Its chief
affluents in Savoy are the Arly and Arc; in
France, the Ozeins, Drac, and Bourne. II. A
S. E. department of France, formed from the
old province of Dauphiné, named from the river
Isère, bounded W. and N. by the Rhone, which
separates it from the departments of Ardèche,
Loire, Rhone, and Ain, E. by Savoy, S. E.
and S. by the department of Hautes-Alpes, and
S. W. by that of Drôme; area, 3,201 sq. m.;
pop. in 1856, 576,637. The surface in the S.
districts is very mountainous, but in the centre
and N. it frequently expands into extensive
plains. There are at least 20 mountain peaks,
the lowest over 6,000 feet high, and the most
elevated, Le Grand Pelvoux, 18,158 feet high.
The principal rivers are the Isère, Drac, Ro-
manche, Bourbre, Guiers, and Rhone. The soil
of the lowlands is in general very fertile. Agri-
culture is in an advanced state. The quantity
of wine made annually averages over 5,000,000
gallons; that made in the valley of the Rhone
has been long celebrated. The raising of silk
is an important branch of industry. There are
mines of iron, copper, lead, and coal; and gold,
silver, platinum, zinc, antimony, &c., are found.
The staple manufactures are hardware, linens,
cotton yarn, &c. Capital, Grenoble.

ISERLOHN, a town of the Prussian province
of Westphalia, 6 m. W. of Arnsberg; pop. about
13,000. It is remarkable for its manufactures
of iron, steel, bronze, needles, &c. The manu-

facture of iron was in operation there as early as the middle ages. That of brass dates from the 18th century. The other manufactures belong to a more recent period. The country around Iserlohn is diversified with picturesque ruins, rocks, glens, and valleys. In the vicinity of the town is the celebrated Felsenmeer (sea of rocks), and a remarkable sounding cave containing fossil bones.

ISHMAEL, son of Abraham and Hagar, born in Mamre. After the birth of a son to Sarah, she persuaded Abraham to banish Hagar and Ishmael, and from that time Ishmael dwelt as a hunter in the wilderness of Paran. His 12 sons became the heads of 12 tribes dwelling in the Arabian desert between Egypt and Assyria under the name of Ishmaelites or Hagarenes.-In the 10th century A. D. the name of Ishmaelites was assumed by a Mohammedan free-thinking sect in Syria and Persia, which was associated with the fanatical assassins or Batenites.

ISIDORUS. I. OF CHARAX, a geographer who probably lived in the early part of the 1st century. He was the author of a great geographical work in which the Greek and Roman world and the Parthian empire were described. There are several quotations in Pliny from this treatise, the extant fragments of which have been repeatedly published in modern times among the remains of the Geographici Minores. The best edition is that of Miller (Paris, 1889). II. OF PELUSIUM, in Egypt, a Christian saint and abbot in the 1st half of the 5th century. He was a great admirer of Chrysostom, whose cause he espoused against the patriarchs Theophilus and Cyril of Alexandria. Over 2,000 of his letters have been preserved. The best edition of them is that published at Paris in 1638. III. OF SEVILLE, a saint of the Latin church, born in Carthagena, Spain, died April 4, 636. He succeeded to the see of Seville about 600, and was esteemed the most eloquent orator, the profoundest scholar, and the ablest prelate of his age. In 616 he presided at the 2d council of Seville, and in 633 at the great council of Toledo. He wrote on science, art, history, and theology; the most curious and important of his works is Originum sive Etymologiarum libri XX., an encyclopædia of all the arts and sciences then known. The best complete edition of his works is that of F. Arevali (Rome, 1797-1803). ISINGLASS. See GELATINE.

ISIS, the principal goddess of the Egyptians, the wife of Osiris, and the mother of Horus. She was adored as the great benefactress of Egypt, and instructed her people in the art of cultivating wheat and barley, whence those cereals were always carried in her festal processions. In Greece, where her worship had been introduced at a very early period, she was occasionally addressed as Pelagia, the queen of the sea. From Greece her worship passed into Italy, and was established about the age of Sylla at Rome, where it became popular. In 43 B. C. the triumvirs, in order to ingratiate themselves with the people, commanded a temple of Isis

and Serapis to be founded, and publicly sanctioned their worship. The principal Roman temple of Isis stood in the Campus Martius, and hence the goddess was often called Isis Campensis. The Romans identified with her a native goddess of the Gauls, Sicilians, and Germans. The priests of Isis wore linen garments, and her votaries in the public processions wore masks representing the heads of dogs. In works of art she usually appears with the figure and face of Juno, arrayed in a long tunic, wearing a wreath of lotus flowers, and in her right hand a sistrum. ISLAM, an Arabic word signifying full submission to God. It is used by Mohammedans to designate their religion, and also the whole body of believers, or those who accept the formula of faith: "There is no God but Allah, and Mohammed is his prophet." This formula or profession of faith is understood to include 5 essential articles of religion : 1, the acknowledgment of the divine unity and of the mission of Mohammed; 2, observance of prayer; 3, almsgiving; 4, keeping the fast of Ramadan; 5, the pilgrimage to Mecca. The Sheeahs, or adherents of Ali, who are dominant in Persia, add to the declaration of faith: "Ali is the vicar of God." But the Soonnees or orthodox Mohammedans, who form the majority of the church of Islam, reject the position thus assigned to Ali. (See ALI BEN ABU Taleb.)

ISLAY, or ISLA, an island of Scotland, in the Atlantic ocean, 15 m. from the coast of Argyleshire, to which it belongs. It is the southernmost of the Hebrides; length about 28 m., breadth about 18 m.; area, 154,000 acres; pop. in 1851, 12,334. The surface of the E. part is hilly, and mostly wooded, but the remainder is generally level. Some of its summits are 1,500 feet high. It contains several small lakes and rivers, which abound with salmon and trout. Loch Finlaggan, near its centre, is about 3 m. in circumference. In this lake is an islet where the Macdonalds, "the lords of the isles," once resided, and where the ruins of their castle still are. The climate is moist, but tolerably healthy. The soil of the lowlands is very fertile and well cultivated. The staple manufacture is whiskey, which is of superior quality, and of which over 200,000 gallons are made yearly. In 1843 the island was purchased as an investment by the late Mr. Morison of London for $2,225,000. Chief town, Bowmore; pop. about 1,200.

ISLE OF FRANCE. See MAURITIUS. ISLE OF MAN. See MAN. ISLE OF PINES. See PINES. ISLE OF WIGHT, a S. E. co. of Va., bounded N. E. by the estuary of James river, and S. W. by the Blackwater; area, 400 sq. m.; pop. in 1850, 9,353, of whom 3,395 were slaves. The surface is generally level and divided between swamps, pine forests, and farming lands. The soil is thin and sandy. The productions in 1850 were 315,699 bushels of Indian corn, 89,713 of sweet potatoes, 3,799 of wheat, and 7,904 lbs. of wool. There were 19 churches and 149 pupils attending public schools. Value of real

estate in 1856, $1,365,049, showing an increase of 12 per cent. since 1850. Capital, Smithfield. ISLE OF WIGHT. See WIGHT. ISLINGTON. See LONDON.

ISNARD, MAXIMIN, a French political orator, born in Grasse, Provence, Feb. 16, 1751, died there in 1830. In the legislative assembly in 1791 he gained notoriety for his eloquence and boldness, contributed to the insurrection of Aug. 10, and was reelected to the convention. He then modified his political views, joined the Girondists, was instrumental in the establishment of the committee of public safety, of which he became a member, strenuously opposed the Montagnards, and, although he consented to vacate his seat on June 2, 1793, could not avoid ultimate proscription. His Herculean strength enabled him to escape the officers who came to arrest him, and he took refuge with a friend. He reappeared in the assembly after the fall of Robespierre. In 1796 he became a member of the council of 500, to which he belonged for one year. Thenceforth he devoted himself to literary and philosophical pursuits, and gradually became religious. Among his publications were a pamphlet entitled Proscription d'Isnard (Paris, 1795), a declamatory but vivid picture of Robespierre's tyranny, and a lyrical poem of some merit, Dithyrambe sur l'immortalité de l'âme, dedicated to Pope Pius VII.

ISOCRATES, an Athenian rhetorician, born in Athens in 436 B. C., died in 338 B. C. His father, Theodorus, was a rich musical instrument maker of Athens, and gave his son the best education attainable in the city. Tisias, Gorgias, Theramenes, and Socrates were his teachers. His natural timidity and a weak voice prevented him from ever taking the part of a public orator, and he devoted himself to lecturing on rhetoric. He first taught in the island of Chios; but it is said that his success there was not very great, and that he was chiefly engaged in regulating the political constitution of the island. He then returned to Athens, where he soon had 100 pupils, at a charge of 1,000 drachmæ each. He also derived a considerable revenue from writing orations. Plutarch says that Nicocles, king of Cyprus, gave him 20 talents for his oration IIpos Nikoκλea. He was never willing to take part in public affairs, and, when appointed trierarch in 355, excused himself on account of illness. This refusal, considering his ample means, occasioned much ill will against him; and in 352, from policy, he accepted the position, and although it was the most expensive office which a private citizen could undertake, yet he fulfilled it with great liberality and splendor. Isocrates taught principally political oratory. The most eminent statesmen, orators, philosophers, and historians of the time were educated in his school, and he always selected practical subjects, proposing to them chiefly the political events of his own time as a study. His orations, though written to be delivered in his school, were copied and recited in all the coun

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