or hard and full pulse, appears in cases of active congestion or inflammation of the liver; in others, the pulse may be natural or irregular. From the time of the appearance of the yellow hue, however, many of the preliminary symptoms may diminish. The attack is often sudden; when following violent emotion, almost instantaneous. The course and duration are various, the disease disappearing or proving fatal as early as the 4th day, or lasting for months or years. The darker forms are most rapid and oftenest fatal. Favorable crises occur in the form of bilious diarrhoea, profuse perspiration, hæmorrhage, or menorrhagia; or improvement begins more quietly, the color fading from the surface in the reverse of the order of its appearance. Severe complications and sequels are liable to appear; among these are diarrhoea, cutaneous eruptions, inflammation or abscess of the liver, disease of the spleen or pancreas, general dropsy, dysentery, coma, epilepsy, apoplexy, and inflammation of the brain. A fatal termination is very liable to be preceded by these complications, or it is ushered in by despondency and sinking, by ascites or hydrothorax, by loss of assimilative power, emaciation, and hectic; death with coma or other cerebral symptoms, due to retention of bile in the circulation, and its action as a poison upon the nervous system, is frequent; and this result is more likely to occur to those whose nervous energies are broken by overwork or excesses. Authors distinguish, as forms of the disease, the idiopathic and symptomatic; continued and recurrent; febrile and non-febrile; inflammatory, plethoric, and nervous; sporadic, endemic, and epidemic; mild and malignant. The obvious indications as to treatment are to promote secretion of the bile, and to favor its removal. In ordinary cases a strong infusion of the bitter-root taken freely, so as to keep up a laxative action, but not so as to purge actively or to vomit, with a daily application of the dripping-sheet for about one minute, free ventilation, a very spare, simple diet until the symptoms mend, and hot fomentations twice a day for half an hour over the liver in cases of torpor or obstruction, or cold cloths in case of excessive production of bile, will usually effect a sure and often a speedy return to health. Generally, in the active stages, much prudence is required to guard, on the one hand, against increasing vascular excitement, and on the other, against augmenting the vital depression. JAVA, a Dutch colony, the third island in size, and the first in political and commercial importance, of the Malay archipelago, between lat. 5° 52′ and 8° 40′ S., and long. 105° 12' and 114° 4' E. It is bounded N. by the sea of Java, which separates it from Borneo; E. by a strait 2 m. wide, which separates it from the island of Bali; S. by the Indian ocean; and W. by the strait of Sunda, which separates it from Sumatra. Its length from E. to W. is 666 m., and its breadth varies from 36 to 126 m.; area, 50,000 sq. m. The coast line of the island is about 1,400 m. in extent, and is remarkably destitute of harbors, especial

ly on the S. side, where there are but two ports, Pachitan and Chalachap. On the N. coast the best harbor is that of Surabaya, but there are many open roadsteads with good anchorage, and the want of landlocked harbors is little felt in the calm waters of the Java sea, where hurricanes are unknown, and storms occur only at the change of the monsoons. On the S. side there is no safe anchorage, the coast being bold and the ocean very deep, while a heavy and dangerous surf rolls continually on the shore.The geological formation of Java is highly volcanic. A range of mountains runs from one end of the island to the other through the centre, with peaks varying in height from 4,000 to 12,000 feet. Among these peaks are 46 volcanoes, 20 of which are in a state of activity. The most remarkable of these is the Tenger mountain in the E. part of the island. It rises from a very large base in a gentle slope with gradually extending ridges. The summit, seen from a distance, appears less conical than that of the other volcanoes, and is about 8,000 feet high. The crater is more than 1,000 feet below the highest point of the mountain. It is the largest crater on the globe, with perhaps the single exception of that of Kilauea in the Sandwich islands. Its diameter is 3 miles, and it forms an immense gulf with a level bottom covered with sand. From its centre rise § cones several hundred feet in height, one of which, called Brahma, is in almost constant activity. South of the great central range is another range of mountains about 3,000 feet in height, which skirts the S. coast. It is composed of volcanic materials, chiefly basalt, and is called by the Javanese Kandang, or drums," from the peculiar columnar form of its rocks. The S. shore of the island is frequently bounded by steep piles of trap. Low ranges of limestone are seen in the eastern part, and in the extreme west a few granite bowlders are occasionally found. Hot springs are numerous at the bases of the volcanoes, and some of them are thoroughly impregnated with carbonic acid. In the lowlands there are mud volcanoes, which furnish muriate of soda. There are 7 great plains in Java: those of Bandawasa and Pugar in the E. section; those of Surakarta, Madiyun, Kadiri, and Malang in the middle section; and in the W. that of Bandong. These plains are fertile and well watered by streams from the mountains, which afford an abundant supply for irrigation. There is also a long alluvial tract running along the N. side of the island, which may be regarded as a continuous plain, and many of the mountain valleys are also spacious and fertile.-There are a few small and beautiful lakes among the mountains, and some er tensive marshes, which in the rainy season be come lakes, and are navigated. The largest of these is in the province of Banumas, and is close to the S. shore. The rivers on the N. side of the island are very numerous, but are all short, and none of them navigable for large vessels being all more or less obstructed by bars of mud

war

are of the Malayan race. They are generally about two inches shorter than the men of the Mongolian and Caucasian races, with round faces, wide mouths, high cheek bones, short and small noses, and small, black, deep-seated eyes. The complexion is brown with a shade of yellow, and is never black. The hair of the head is thick, black, lank, and harsh, and is either scanty or altogether wanting on other parts of the body. A few short, straggling hairs compose the beard. The people are not active, and make but poor runners or wrestlers. They are described as a peaceable, docile, sober, simple, and industrious people. Mr. Crawfurd, author of "A Descriptive Dictionary of the Indian Islands," who lived several years in Java, says: "From my own experience of them, I have no difficulty in pronouncing them the most straightforward and truthful Asiatic people that I have met with. The practice of running a muck, so frequent with the other cultivated nations of the archipelago, is of very rare occurrence with them." Java is one of the most densely peopled countries of the world, the population by the census of 1856 amounting to 11,116,680, of whom 7,850,250 were Javanese, 2,950,145 Sundese, 195,260 Chinese, 76,125 Malays, 15,250 Arabs, and 11,500 Buginese from Celebes. The Europeans, who are mostly Dutch, the ruling class in the island, numbered 18,150, including soldiers and halfbreeds. The number of inhabitants to the square mile on the whole island is 222, but in some of the provinces the average is about 600. -The Javanese are almost entirely occupied in agriculture. There is a small class of fishermen on the N. coast, and a few artisans in the towns, but the great bulk of the people live directly or indirectly by the cultivation of the land, in which they have made greater progress than any other Asiatic nation except the Chinese and Japanese. The chief crop is rice, of which with the aid of irrigation, industriously and almost universally applied, two crops are raised in a year. Lands that cannot be irrigated are used for growing pulses, oil-giving plants, cotton, sugar cane, and tobacco; and on the mountain slopes, at an elevation of 2,000 or 3,000 feet, coffee is cultivated. "In the most fertile parts of Java," says Crawfurd," and these from the neighborhood of the high mountains are usually also the most picturesque, the scenery is at once agreeable and magnificent, and certainly for grandeur and beauty excels all that I have seen even in Italy, that country which in summer bears the nearest resemblance to Java. In such situations we have mountains 10,000 feet high, cultivated to half their height, the valleys below having all the appearance of a well watered garden, in which the fruit trees are so abundant as to conceal the closely packed villages." The mechanic arts among the Javanese are not so far advanced as their agriculture. About 30 crafts are practised among them, of which the principal are those of the blacksmith or cutler, the carpenter, the sheath maker, the

coppersmith, the goldsmith, and the potter. Bricks and tiles are largely made. The carpenters are skilful in house and boat building. They make vessels of all sizes from 50 tons down to fishing canoes, and under European superintendence build large ships. The ordinary dwellings of the people are built of a rough frame of timber, thatched with grass or palm leaves, and with walls and partitions of split bamboo. The Javanese excel all other nations of the Malay archipelago in the working of metals. They are especially skilful in the manufacture of the national weapon, the kris or dagger, which is worn by every man and boy above 14 years as part of his ordinary costume, and by many ladies of high rank. They make also excellent gongs of brass, and these with other musical instruments of the same metal have long been exported to the neighboring countries. The only native textile material woven by the Javanese is cotton, of which they make only a stout durable calico, and this is purely a domes tic manufacture, carried on exclusively by the women. From raw silk imported from China, the silkworm not being reared in Java, a coarse cloth is woven also by the women. Paper of the nature of the ancient papyrus is a manufac ture peculiar to the Javanese. In science the people have made little progress, possessing only a rude notion of astronomy and a slight knowledge of arithmetic. Their architecture at the present day hardly deserves the name, though the country abounds with remarkable remains of temples built many centuries ago by the ancestors of the present inhabitants. Of the other fine arts, music is the one in which they have made the greatest progress. They are passionately fond of it, and have generally fine musical ears. Their melodies are wild, plaintive, and interesting, and more pleasing to the European ear than any other Asiatic music. They have wind and stringed instruments, but their best and most common instruments are drums and gongs. In religion the Javanese are Moham medans, which faith was established by Arab conquerors in the 15th century, and has almost entirely displaced Brahminism and Buddhism, the ancient religions of the country.—The com merce of Java is carried on chiefly through the ports of Batavia, Samarang, and Surabaya. The principal exports, with their respective values in 1856, are stated officially as follows: Coffee, $13, 510,000; sugar, $8,500,000; rice, $2,250,000; indigo, $1,720,000; spices, $525,000; tin, $2,110, 000; pepper, $210,000; India rubber, $195,000; birds' nests, $250,000; total, $29,260,000. Beside these articles, cinnamon, tea, camphor, ratans, and other products are exported in considerable quantities. The tea crop in 1859 amounted to 1,841,182 lbs.-The most important feature of Javanese society is the village, which forms a complete body politic, with considerable powers of self-government. Its officers are elected by the people, and are charged with the collection of the taxes and the maintenance of public order. The general government of the island is intrast

ed to a governor-general, appointed by the king of Holland. He is commander-in-chief of the army and navy, and possesses nearly absolute power. Justice is administered to the European inhabitants by a supreme court at Batavia, and by 3 provincial courts at Batavia, Samarang, and Surabaya. There are beside these other courts for the Asiatic population. There are two newspapers, both subjected to a strict censorship. The history of Java previous to the 11th century of our era is involved in fable and obscurity. It is only certain that long before that period the Javanese had acquired a considerable degree of civilization. About the 11th century, or, according to some conjectures, as early as the 6th, Java was visited by the Hindoos, either as emigrants or conquerors, who founded kingdoms and converted the natives to Brahminism. The Hindoos and their religion remained dominant in the island from the end of the 13th to that of the 15th century, when Mohammedanism, which had for a century or two been zealously propagated by Arabs, Persians, Malays, and Hindoo Mohammedans, who came as merchants or settlers, gained a complete ascendency over Brahminism. Bantam, the last of the Hindoo states, was conquered in 1480. In about a century after this event, Java was divided into many independent states. About 1578 an ambitious chief raised himself to supreme power over nearly the whole island, and founded a dynasty which still exists in the small kingdoms which are permitted by the Dutch to remain in nominal independence. The Portuguese visited Java in 1579, and entered into commercial negotiations with the natives. The Dutch first came to Java in 1596 as traders. In 1610 they obtained permission to build a fort near the site of the present city of Batavia. They soon became involved in war with the native rulers, and in 1677 obtained a considerable territory. From that period to 1830 they carried on 4 great wars with the natives, the first of which lasted for 34 years; the second, which began in 1718, lasted for 5 years; the third, which began in 1740, for 15 years; and the fourth, which began in 1825, for 5 years. The third was begun Sept. 26, 1740, by a dreadful massacre of the Chinese settlers at Batavia, of whom 10,000 were killed in two days. In 1811 the British, being at war with Holland, then a portion of the French empire, sent a fleet and army against Java, which was conquered without much opposition and held till 1816, when it was restored to Holland. Of late years the island has rapidly advanced in population and prosperity, and it is now one of the most flourishing of European colonies. By a decree of the Dutch government, slavery was totally abolished on Sept. 20, 1859, in all their colonies in India. It had never prevailed among the native Javanese, and the number of slaves in the island amounted only to a few thousands, mostly natives of other islands of the archipelago and of Africa, and held by European masters.-Sir T. Stamford Raffles's "History of

Java" (2 vols. 4to., London, 1817) is a standard work. The natural history of Java has been treated by C. L. Blume, Flora Java necnon Insularum Adjacentium (3 vols. fol., Brussels, 1826-'36), and by Dr. T. Horsfield in his "Zoological Researches in Java and the Neighboring Islands" (London, 1824). The German naturalist and explorer Junghuhn is the author of several works on the natural history and geography of Java, the most important of which was published in Amsterdam in 1850 (3d Germ. ed., Leipsic, 1852).

JAVA, LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE of. It is not certain whether the name of Java be connected with the Sanscrit Javana and Yavana, both of which, beside being related to Iovia as names of Greece, also signify (especially the latter) Bactria, Arabia, and other foreign countries, and, moreover, swift, horse, &c.; or whether its etymon be of a different origin. As regards the affinities of the Javanese language, Roorda considers it as a branch of the Malay. Crawfurd derives it from the vernacular of the aborigines, to whom he attributes the primitive culture of the Malayan islands. Domeny de Rienzi supposes it to have arisen from the language of the Bugis of Celebes, by an admixture of Malay and Sanscrit. W. von Humboldt connects it, both as to words and grammar, with the Tagala, the most developed Malayan tongue of the Philippine islands, as well as with other Malay idioms and with Sanscrit. Others see in it a type of the unmixed tribes of Oceania. It certainly shows all these affinities, and contains also some Arabic elements. The Javanese is the most cultivated of all Polynesian languages, owing to the very early intercourse of the island with the continent of India, whose Aryan as well as Dravidan influence is attested by the presence of Malabaric words along with those from the Sanscrit, not only in Javanese, but also in the idioms of Sumatra, Madagascar, &c. Both religious and political revolutions have served to modify the condition of the languages. -There are four dialects, according to Raffles, on the three islands which form the linguistic group in question, viz.: 1. The tongue of the mountaineers of Sunda, in the W. part of Java, E. of Tagal, probably vernacular through this whole region before the introduction of Mohammedanism, now spoken by about of the population of the island; it contains many Malay and some Sanscrit words, stands in the same relation to the principal language as the Welsh does to the English, and is best spoken at Bantam, sluggishly at Bogor and Chianjore, and verging to the Javanese at Cheribon. 2. The Javanese proper, E. of the last named city, extending through the rest of the island, especially along its N. shore; its words are long at Tagal, shorter at Samarang, full, short, and strong at the courts of Surakarta in the centre, and Jokjokarta in the south; it approaches the Madurese at Surabaya, and the Balian at BanyuVangi. 3. The dialect of Madura and Sumanap, which has many Sunda words, with more

of Malay, and with peculiar endings. 4. That of Bali, little different from the general Javanese. This island preserves the ancient letters as well as Brahminism, both expelled from Java in the 15th century A. D. A sort of jargon, analogous to the lingua franca, is spoken at Batavia, being a medley of Dutch, Portuguese, Javanese, and Malay. Along with the preceding there are also peculiar styles or idioms of speech, varying in accordance with social position and age, as the madhjo (intermediate), between equals; the bása or bohoso-ngoko (language popular), to inferiors; the bása-kramo (language superior), urbane, court idiom, about of it Sanscrit, used by poets as the speech of gods, heroes, and ghosts. As to locality, there are also two vernacular idioms, viz.: the básadalam of the interior, and the bása-luar, spoken along the shores.-The Kavi (learned, wise, poet) is the ancient sacred language of Java, and consists of about 6 parts of Sanscrit, less altered than in the Pali, to 4 of Javano-Malay. It owes its origin to Brahminic immigration, about the beginning of our era. It is to the Javanese what Sanscrit is to the Hindostanee, and Pali to the Indo-Chinese languages. Declining in the 14th century, it took refuge in Bali, and was imperfectly known by the Panambahan at Sumanap at the time when Raffles was in Java. Passages in the Kavi are sometimes quoted on peculiar occasions, as for instance in fables and dramas; the term itself is employed as a title of works, &c., such as Sekar-kavi, flowers of poetry, whence Sekarini, a Kavi meter; Rama-kavi, the Javanese Ramayana; Kavindhra, principal singer or poet (named ma-katha, narrator, in Tagala). A few specimens of words may show the relation of the Javanese to the common Malay, where the difference, if not especially noted, is sometimes more in the accent than otherwise: langit, heaven; tanah, earth (Mal. also benua, region); ayer (Jav. also banyu), water; laut (Jav. lahut), sea; dhina (Mal. hāri), day; bengi (Mal. mālam), night; vùlan (Mal. bulan), moon; terang (Mal. trang), light; mati, to die; lulat (Mal. kasih), to love; dara, virgin; dheva (Mal. tuhan), god, lord; mangan (Mal. makan, santap), to eat; bapa, pak (Mal. pa, politely ayah), father; ma, bok (Mal. mā, amā, politely ibu, bonda), mother, &c. Compounds and derivatives abound, but the latter are more frequently formed by suffixes than by prefixes, in which the Tagala is very rich. There are many contractions into tr, ngl, ngr, with the dropping of short vowels, together with the alteration of the initial sound (similarly to the Celtic), and other variations which obscure the etymic origin, thus: Sans. natha, master, lord, becomes tata, order, to reign; Jav. neda, to eat, teda, food; nulis, to write, tulis, scripture; nitik, to prove, titik, proof. The prefix n denotes verbs, t substantives; other changes are: nyatur, to tell, chatur, tale; nyerrat, to write, serrat, writing, &c. The doubling of the first syllable makes verbs, as tutulung, to help, from tulung, aid; gagriya,

to dwell, from griya, house. The insertion of in is the sign of the passive voice. Substantives are also made by prefixing pem (pen, pe), denoting an agent; thus: pem-pekto, carrier, from pekto, to carry; pen-dahar, eater, &c.; by prefixing ka, a sign of the past participle: ka-bekto, Lat. allatum; by suffixing n (en, an): bakt-en, the carrying, dahar-an, Lat. cibus; and by both prefix and suffix: ka-dahar-an, eatable. Articles, gender, and the dual number are wanting, In the plural, cases are denoted by particles, and also by reduplication, as in the Japanese. The genitive relation is shown by the precedence of the noun or by inserting ing. The other rela tions of case are indicated by means of verbs. The adjective is unchanged after the substantive. Pronominal forms are fewer than in Malay: kita, we in Malay, means I in Javanese, The numerals are: 1, sidshi; 2, loro; 3, telu; 4, papat; 5, limo; 6, nem; 7, pitu; 8, volu; 9, songngo; 10, sepuluh; 11, savelas; 12, volas, &c. Ordinals are formed by prefixing ping or kaping. The figures of numbers are modified letters. The person, number, tense, mood, and voice of verbs are indicated by certain particles. Many verbs and nouns are expressed by the same word, others are distinguished as stated above. The suffixes of the imperative are e ono, en, enno. The following are examples a verb in various forms: ningngalli, to see: passive, dhipun tingngalli, katingallan, &c.: kula tingngalli, I have seen; bade kula tingngalli, I shall see; tinningngallam, to see one another; sampeyan tingngalli, see; kula tingngallana, that I may see, &c. The construction is as follows:

Rama kahula kang conten ing surga, vasta andika dedi Father our who art in heaven, rame thy

elapienno. hallowed.

be

As regards the shape and employment of letters, the graphic system is derived from the Devanagari, but not as regards their order, which is as follows: 'ha, na, tcha, ra, ka, da, ta, sa, ra, la, pa, da, dja, ya, nya, ma, ga, ba, ta, ng'a. These 20 Akshara (letters) are consonants with an adherent a in the general language, or at the courts of princes, which, when not suppressed, gives to the syllabarium the epithet of lagana. As many Pasangan (consonants) are vowelless 3 of them are annexed, the others subscribed to other letters. This peculiar succession of letters must have originated prior to that of the organic scheme of the Devanagari, and it is explained by its signifying: "There were two messengers, disputing, equally courageous, till both died." The Akshara-Buddha, being an cient, differ in form from the later Akshara-gede. Some Kavi letters are almost like those of the Sanscrit, while the more recent resemble the square Pali. The vowels are called Sandang'es (connection), viz.: a, i, u, è, è (almost French muet), o, either used as initials or (except a) attached to the consonants instead of the inherent a. The diacritic signs are analogous to those of the Devanagari. There are also characters for