wish to continue to live we must have access to many distant markets. To enable us to buy all these things we must have markets for our surplus products. This market we find in Europe. The manufacturing nations there must have our cotton, grain and meat products as their business is now adjusted. The value of the merchandise passing to and from the several grand divisions of the world in normal times and without inflated valuations is fairly indicated by the trade statistics of the United States for the year 1911 which are summarized as follows:

From this showing it appears that in ordinary times a little more than fifty per cent. of all the imports of the United States come from Europe, on which we are not necessarily dependent for any product of the earth. We are, however, strictly dependent on Europe for a market for our surplus products, of which it bought nearly sixty-four per cent. Trade with South America, which bears much the same relation to Europe that we do, is of relatively small importance. We get much of our coffee from Brazil, and rubber, cinchona and many other products from other parts of the continent. Exports to South America are mostly of manufactured articles. It would be exceedingly unpleasant to be deprived of our trade with the people of that continent, but the main lines of both travel and commerce are east and west instead of north and south. Trade with our immediate neighbors in North America exceeds in volume that with any other continent except Europe.

Considering ties of blood between our citizens and those of Europe and commercial relations it is apparent that we are more deeply and directly interested in the maintenance of peace there than anywhere else in the world. All the states on the American continents have the same theory of government. Statistical Abstract, 1911, pp. 722, 723.

They have each had hard struggles to establish their institutions on a firm and durable basis, but now have little occasion for turmoil within or conflict without their dominions. The mother countries, however, are not so happily situated, and it seems necessary for the now mature children on this side of the water to take a friendly interest in the affairs of their cousins there. The relationship of the people of Europe and America is not a mere theoretical or ideal relation, but an actual, easily traceable blood connection. The general situation at the close of the war is that the people of all eastern Europe and Germany and what was Austria-Hungary are now in the turmoil which has always followed the overthrow of despotic military governments, while those of the western part, which had democratic institutions before the war, are able to maintain internal order. No great military nation now remains to oppose its will to the organization of the entire world on a basis of popular government at home and justice and equality of right among all the states great and small. Disarmament can go forward in all countries as fast as the great League of Nations is able to inspire a sense of security and confidence in the just purposes of those who are entrusted with the solution of international problems.

The formulation of rules of international law designed for universal observance is not a matter of great difficulty. There is no danger that a body representing all the nations would by even a bare majority vote enact any general law that would be fundamentally unjust. It might do so if a large number of the great nations were still ruled by military leaders, but representatives of the people cannot truly represent the wishes of their constituents unless they seek the just and true rule. But if the world can have a permanent organization with a general legislative body, made up of representatives holding for short terms, and having power to correct its own errors, bad laws would soon disappear and their evil consequences be little felt. Unwise legislation may always be expected in popular governments, but evil influences when detected and exposed soon pass away and their works with them.

The approaches toward international legislation which have

been made by the conferences at which the great conventions hereinafter considered were formulated exhibit a most encouraging tendency for representatives of many nations to apply both sound moral principles and practical wisdom in their work. The quality of this work is not open to criticism. It fails however of universality of application and lacks instrumentalities for its enforcement, even as between the parties to it. The Universal Postal Union is now a complete world-wide organization of all the nations for the transmission of the mails. Its methods of legislation are adapted to its peculiar needs. It connects the postal administration of each country with that of every other country, and international business is carried on through the cooperation of the postal organizations of all the countries. The conventions for the regulation of navigation on the high seas and to prevent the spread of infectious diseases cover fields requiring regulation by positive laws of universal application. For efficiency they require the aids of judicial and executive force. They apply to people, ships, and merchandise of all nations, and the authority of the courts and officers charged with the enforcement of them needs to extend over all alike.

COMPOSITION OF THE NATION

As the government of a nation speaks for its people as individuals, as well as for all of them collectively, in all dealings with other states, the relations of the state to the people within its boundaries are of great importance in considering the subject of international relations. Within each of the great modern nations there are cities far greater and more populous than any of the Greek city states ever were, yet these are mere creatures of the sovereign power of the nation of which they are a part, possessing such corporate powers as the state has conferred upon them. In the United States they do not even derive their powers from the general government, but from the state in which they are located. While the states are sovereign in all matters over which no power is conferred on the general government by the Constitution, the power to deal with foreign nations is expressly conferred on the President

and Congress. Similarly the British Government speaks for all its colonies and dependencies, though it now generally allows them to take part in making treaties in which their especial interests are involved. The doctrine of personality and single responsibility is applied alike to the little republic of San Marino, so small that it can hardly be located on the map, the vast widely scattered dominions of the British Empire, and all the other nations whatever their size or the complexity or simplicity of their institutions.

With the increase of travel, commerce and intercourse among the people of different nations many questions arise as to the status of persons while away from their native homes. International law concedes to each nation the right to classify its people as it sees fit, and to determine the relation of each class to the government, but when one who at birth owes allegiance to one country removes to another, questions arise as to the authority of his native country over him, its duties and obligations to protect him in his person and property and as to his rights, duties and obligations in the country to which he goes.

The general rule is that place of birth determines nationality, and that all persons born within the territorial boundaries of the nation and within the allegiance of its government are citizens or subjects of it, bound to support and maintain it, subject to its laws, and entitled to its protection both at home and abroad." "All persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside." "Natural subjects are born within the dominions of the crown of England, that is within the legeance or, as it is generally called the allegiance, of the king; and aliens such as are born out of it." This is the general doctrine in all countries.10 Every na

71 Blackstone 370.

8 14th Amendment to Constitution of the United States.

9 I Blackstone 366.

10 Civil Code of France, Art. 8. Const. Switzerland Arts. 43-44-45. Const. Japan Ch. 2. Tiaco v. Forbes, 228 U. S. 549, U. S. v. Wong Musgrove v. Chun Teeong Toy (1891) A. C. 272.

Kim Ark 169 U. S. 228.

tion, unless otherwise bound by treaty, has the right to forbid the entrance of foreigners within its boundaries, or to prescribe the terms on which they may be admitted, and to deport and expel foreigners who have not been naturalized." Though this power exists and has at times been used by all the nations, it is not generally exercised in commercial nations in times of peace, and the sparsely peopled countries of the Western Hemisphere have invited the immigration of Europeans.

The converse of this power, that of preventing its citizens from going abroad, also exists, and a nation may compel its citizens or subjects to remain within its territorial limits, but the exercise of this power is not in accord with the principles of free people. By the common law of England a subject could not throw off his allegiance to the crown without the consent of the sovereign,12 and the monarchies of central Europe have strenuously asserted this doctrine until recent times. The United States does not deny its citizens the right of expatriation, but from an early day has steadily asserted the right of a man to choose his country and his allegiance. Section 1999 of the Revised Statutes of the United States provides:

"Whereas the right of expatriation is a natural and inherent right of all people, indispensable to the enjoyment of the rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; and whereas in the recognition of this principle this Government has freely received emigrants from all nations, and invested them with the rights of citizenship; and whereas it is claimed that such American citizens, with their descendants, are subjects of foreign states, owing allegiance to the governments thereof; and whereas it is necessary to the maintenance of the public peace that this claim of foreign allegiance should be promptly and finally disavowed: Therefore any declaration, instruction, opinion, order, or decision of any officer of the United States which denies, restricts, impairs, or questions the right of. expatriation, is declared inconsistent with the fundamental principles of the Republic."

Aliens may become citizens of the country in which they are domiciled by compliance with its laws relating to naturalization in the countries which have such laws in force. Many treaties have been entered into, especially between the United

11 Fitch v. Weber 6 Hare 51. Macdonald's Case 18 How. St. Tr. 858. 12 McKenzie v. Hare 239 U. S. 299. Alsberry v. Hawkins 33 Am. D. 546.