Council, but also from the wealthy townsmen and country gentlemen. It seemed best, therefore, to ask the towns and the counties to send representatives to meet with the Great Council, and there give the consent of their communities to the new taxes. This would make it easier to collect the money, for then there would be less grumbling about it. It would also be in keeping with the spirit of that passage of the Great Charter in which the king promised not to collect money from his subjects without their consent. Of course it would have been possible for the king's officers to go about the country asking the consent of each community in turn, and indeed this was sometimes done. But on the whole it was felt that it would be quicker and more satisfactory to bring together at one place the representatives of all the communities and there secure their consent.

The representatives who were thus called together were of two sorts. First, there were the "knights of the shire," who represented the lesser nobles and country gentlemen; and, 247. Knights second, there were the "borough representatives," who of the shire came from the cities and towns (boroughs) and repre- (1213) sented the trading classes. The knights of the shire were the first to be added to the assembly. In 1213, for the first time the king called them to meet with the Great Council, "to speak with us concerning the business of our kingdom.” From time to time after that, "knights of the shire" were summoned to the assembly, until the practice became permanent. They were elected by the landholders, in the county assemblies, and every county sent two, no matter what its size.

The addition of the town, or borough, representatives came in 1265, when Simon de Montfort was in power. To gain widespread support he summoned representatives from each 248. Borough repof the towns favorable to his cause to meet with the resentabarons and the knights of the shire in the Parliament of tives (1265) that year. This practice of summoning representatives of the boroughs, from time to time, was continued after the barons' revolt was put down. Finally, in 1295, King Edward I called a meeting which established it as a rule that in a Parliament

two houses

there ought to be representatives both of the counties and of the towns. This was called the "Model Parliament” because it became a model for succeeding ones. Each town which sent representatives at all, in those days, elected two. Gradually the place of meeting became fixed at Westminster, a suburb of London. At first the representatives of the counties and of the boroughs sat in the same body with the barons and great churchmen. By the year 1340, however, Parliament had separated into 249. Separation into two "houses." The upper house was the House of Lords; it included the great barons, who bore the titles of duke, marquis, earl, viscount, and baron, and had an hereditary right to be summoned to the Parliament. It also included the archbishops and bishops, and the abbots or heads of monasteries, who belonged by virtue of their lands and offices. The lower house, made up of county and borough members, was called the House of Commons. In course of time it became the most important part of Parliament. This was because it especially was called upon to vote the taxes which the king needed for carrying on the government. For a time the towns and counties looked upon representation in Parliament as a burden. Gradually their representatives began to hold back the voting of taxes until the king and his ministers promised to correct any grievances of which they complained. Then it was seen that the right of voting taxes was a great and valuable power, and the people no longer complained of being represented in Parliament. At first it was not certain whether the House of Commons would be admitted to a share in the lawmaking power, or

250. The Commons given equal powers

whether it would be allowed only to vote taxes. In his summons to the Model Parliament, however, Edward I laid down the principle that "what concerns all should be approved by all." Twenty-seven years later, the rule was definitely stated that all matters which concerned the kingdom and the people "shall be established in Parliament, by the King, and by the consent of the Lords and the Commons of the realm." From this time on, the powers of the Commons grew, until they are now much greater than those of the Lords,

251. Parlia

But we must not think of these early Parliaments as having the great powers which Parliaments have to-day. The king was still much more powerful than the Parliament, though since the granting of the Great Charter it was ment not recognized that the king was below the law and not above yet supreme it. In making new laws, and in laying new taxes, he needed the consent of Parliament; but in carrying on the general business of the government in making war and in concluding peacehe could act without Parliament. Often he consulted Parliament about such matters, but he could act as he pleased. The ministers who carried on the government were still the king's ministers, and responsible to him only. It was to be several centuries yet and two civil wars were to be fought, and one king beheaded and two deposed - before Parliament was recognized as the chief power in the government.

Before the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War the framework of the legislative assembly in England was complete. The importance of this development is not due solely to the great part which that assembly has played in the government of Great Britain. In modern times the English Parliament became "the Mother of Parliaments" for other countries also. Indeed, it is not going too far to say that the greatest thing that England has done for the world was to give it this system of legislative assemblies (including our Congress and state legislatures), by which practically the whole world is now governed.

IMPORTANT DATES

1100-1135. Henry I, the "Lion of Justice."

1154-1189. Henry II reforms the government and introduces jury trial. 1170. Thomas Becket murdered.

1206. King John loses Normandy.

1213. Knights of the shire first summoned to Parliament.

1215. The Great Charter granted.

1265. Borough representatives added to Parliament; Montfort slain.

1284. Edward I completes the conquest of Wales.

1295. The Model Parliament of Edward I.

1327. Edward II deposed and Edward III becomes king.

1340. Parliament separated into two houses.

TOPICS AND REFERENCES

Suggestive Topics. (1) Was the Norman conquest a good or a bad thing for England? Why? (2) What feature of feudalism is illustrated by the anarchy under Stephen? (3) Show on an outline map the lands ruled by Henry II. Show also those lost by John. (4) What advantages does trial by jury have over the older forms of trial? (5) Was more right on the side of Henry II or of Becket in their quarrel? Give your reasons. (6) Why was Richard I a poor ruler? (7) How did the battle of Bouvines affect England? (8) Commit to memory the sentence from the Great Charter which is quoted in this chapter. (9) Did that charter grant any new rights to Englishmen? (10) Why is it so important in English history? (11) Point out the importance of the work of Edward I as a lawgiver. (12) Show how the representative system of government made self-government possible for larger districts than in ancient times. (13) Can you name any important countries to-day in which Parliaments do not exist? Search Topics. (1) JUDICIAL REFORMS OF HENRY II. Cheyney, Short History of England, 148-154; Montague, English Constitutional History, 47-50; Mrs. Green, Henry II, 116–126. — (2) HENRY II AND THOMAS BECKET. Green, Short History, 106-109; Cheyney, Readings, 143-164; Mrs. Green, Henry II, ch. vii. - (3) THE LOSS OF NORMANDY. Green, History of the English People, Bk. II, ch. iv. — (4) JOHN's QUARREL WITH THE POPE. Green, Short History, 122-125; Green, Henry II; Milman, Latin Christianity, Bk. IX, ch. v. (5) WINNING THE GREAT CHARTER. Green, History of the English People, Bk. II, last half ch. ii; Ogg, Source Book, 297-310; Robinson, Readings in European History, 231–238. (6) SIMON DE MONTFORT. Green, Short History, 152-160; Encyclopedia Britannica (11th ed.), XVIII, 781-782; Hutton, Simon de Montfort and his Cause (sources). — (7) CHARACTER AND WORK OF EDWARD I. Tout, Edward I, ch. iv. (8) THE CONQUEST OF WALES. Tout, Edward I, ch. vi; Green, Short History, 161-169. (9) WARS OF EDWARD I WITH SCOTLAND. Tout, Edward I, chs. x, xii; Green, Short History, 181193. (10) THE ORIGIN OF PARLIAMENT. Ilbert, Parliament, 7-20; Boutmy, English Constitution, 55-69; Tout, Edward I, ch. viii; Green, Short History, 169-181.

General Reading. - In addition to the general histories of England and the works referred to in connection with the search topics, see Miss Norgate's John Lackland, Taswell-Langmead's Constitutional History of England, and Skottowe's Short History of Parliament. Medley's Manual of English Constitutional History is an excellent book, topically arranged. Pollard's History of England (Home University Library) is a brilliant sketch in 247 pages. The articles in the Dictionary of National Biography (2d ed., 22 vols.) are of the highest value for the teacher and advanced student.

CHAPTER XII

THE GROWTH OF FRANCE (987-1337)

A. LOUIS VI AND PHILIP AUGUSTUS

opment of

WHEN Hugh Capet came to the throne of France, in 987 ($41), feudal tendencies had overmastered the monarchy. What is now France was then only a bundle of feudal 252. Develfragments, steadily growing farther apart in language, the royal in law, and in political feeling. It was the work of the power Capetian kings to reunite these fragments, to form a strong monarchy, and to arouse in it a national enthusiasm. Three centuries passed before the task was approximately completed. The Capetian kings were assisted in the work by their possession of extensive estates in northern France, by the support of the church and the towns, and by the moral authority which attached to the office of king. A chief means used to effect the transformation was by increasing the area of the royal domain, that is, of those lands which were directly under the control of the crown; for the extension of the royal domain brought increased revenues and more numerous retainers.

Under the first four Capetian kings little was accomplished; but beginning with Louis VI, in 1108, rapid progress

'The kings of the direct Capetian line, with the dates of their reigns, were as follows: