But the Italy re Notwithstanding many hindrances to national progress, much has been accomplished for Italy. Brigandage has in large measure been suppressed. Waste lands have been brought under cultivation, and malaria decreased by extensive drainage systems. Many miles of state railroads have been built. A system of public education has been established, which extends from elementary schools to the universities. As a result, illiteracy, which is one of the curses of Italy, decreased from 73 per cent of the adult population in 1871, to 56 per cent in 1901. Modern manufactures, though late in arising, have developed rapidly in recent years, especially in the north. burden of the national debt is still crushing, and mains the most heavily taxed country in Europe. This in part accounts for the great number of its inhabitants who emigrate to other lands, especially to the United States. Industrial and political discontent, moreover, is widespread; and strikes and labor disturbances are incessant and are complicated by Socialist agitations. To check the growth of the radical party, Pope Pius X in 1905 practically abolished the church rule by which good Catholics were forbidden to vote in parliamentary elections. The permanence of the Italian kingdom is assured, but the future of no other great power of western Europe is clouded with so many unsolved problems. IMPORTANT DATES 1846. Pius IX becomes Pope. 1848. Revolution put down in Austria and Bohemia; Francis Joseph I becomes Emperor of Austria. 1848. Revolution in Italy put down by Austria; Victor Emmanuel II becomes king of Sardinia-Piedmont. 1852. Cavour becomes prime minister of Sardinia-Piedmont. 1859. Napoleon III aids Sardinia in wresting Lombardy from Austria. 1860. Most of central Italy gained. 1861. Naples and Sicily annexed; kingdom of Italy proclaimed. 1866. Venetia added to kingdom of Italy. 1870. Rome taken from the Pope; Italian unity completed. TOPICS AND REFERENCES Suggestive Topics. (1) How do you explain the wide spread of the revolutionary movements in 1848? (2) Compare the aims of the revolutionists in Vienna with those in Hungary and Italy. (3) Why did the revolution in the Austrian lands fail? (4) Why should Russia intervene to aid Austria in Hungary? (5) Why did the events in Paris in 1870-1871 find no echo in Austria-Hungary? (6) What did the first Napoleon contribute to the cause of Italian unity? (7) How did Mazzini aid the movement? (8) What did Garibaldi do to further it? (9) What did Cavour contribute? (10) Why did the movement to drive the Austrians out win greater success in 1859 than in 1848? (11) Why was the movement for Italian unity finally successful? (12) Why did Victor Emmanuel seek to win Rome for his capital? (13) Why did the Pope resist? (14) Compare Italy's position in 1900 with its situation in 1850. Search Topics.—(1) KOSSUTH. Thayer, Throne Makers ("Kossuth"); Encyclopedia Britannica, XV, 916-918; Kossuth, Memories of my Exile. (2) REVOLUTION OF 1848 IN THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE. Hazen, Europe Since 1815, 152-159, 169-181; Andrews, Development of Modern Europe, I, 363– 373; Phillips, Modern Europe, 289–308. (3) PRESENT GOVERNMENT OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. Ogg, Governments of Europe, 456-474, 489-500; Encyclopedia Britannica, III, 2-3; Robinson and Beard, Readings, II, 165-168, 171-175. — (4) MAZZINI AND YOUNG ITALY. Hazen, 159-164; Andrews, I, 205-213; Stillman, Union of Italy, 44-48; Cesaresco, Liberation of Italy, ch. iv; Robinson and Beard, Readings, II, 115-118. - (5) GARIBALDI. Hazen, 232-236; Murdock, Reconstruction of Europe, ch. xiii; Cesaresco, Liberation, ch. xiv; Robinson and Beard, Readings, II, 126128. (6) CAVOUR. Hazen, 215-239; Andrews, II, 91-114; Thayer, Throne Makers (“Cavour"); Cesaresco, Cavour. (7) How CAVOUR BROUGHT ON WAR IN 1859. Phillips, 366-370; King, Italian Unity, II, 56-67; Cesaresco, Liberation, ch. xi; Mazade, Cavour, 186–193. (8) VATICAN COUNCIL OF 1869-1870. Encyclopedia Britannica, XXVII, 947951; Catholic Encyclopedia, XV, 303–309. (9) PRESENT GOVERNMENT OF ITALY. Hazen, 374-380; Ogg, 365-381; Encyclopedia Britannica, XV, 19. (10) ECONOMIC CONDITION OF ITALY. Encyclopedia Britannica, XV, 8-14, 80-81; Robinson and Beard, Readings, II, 138–141. General Reading. The best general accounts of the Revolution of 1848 in Central Europe are in Hazen, Andrews, Fyffe, and Phillips. For Austria-Hungary since 1849, see Colquhoun, The Whirlpool of Europe. The best histories of the attainment of Italian unity are by Bolton King, Cesaresco, Stillman, and Probyn. Trevelyan's various works dealing with Garibaldi are fascinatingly written. For present conditions in Italy, see King and Okey, Italy To-day. 1815 CHAPTER XXXII THE UNIFICATION OF GERMANY A. THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 IN GERMANY THE Revolution of 1848, which broke out first in France and whose influence in Austria and in Italy has been traced in the preceding chapter, profoundly disturbed Germany also. As in Italy, the movement in Germany had two objects: (1) to secure Liberal and democratic reforms in the separate German states; (2) to unite all Germany into a single national union. The German Confederation, which was established by the Congress of Vienna, was in many ways similar to the government 759. Weak- of the United States under the old Articles of Confederaness of Gertion. No important measure could be passed in the Diet many after without the unanimous vote of all the thirty-eight states. Its members were without individual freedom in voting; they were mere delegates, sent by their governments with precise directions, and were obliged to ask instructions before each vote. The result was that no important measure was ever passed by the Diet. In addition, the Confederation had no organized executive, and no means of enforcing its rulings upon the separate states. The Diet was only a council of representatives of the federated princes, under the presidency of Austria. It in no way represented the sentiments of the German people. Hence the movements for Liberal reforms and national union did not center in the Diet, but rather in the universities, for which Germany was famed. 760. The Prussian Zollverein In Germany, as in the United States, it was the need of regulating commerce which caused the first step towards union to be taken. The accident that Prussia ruled many scattered territories, with a thousand miles of frontiers, made a Zollverein (tsōl'fer-in; customs tariff union) a matter of importance for her. By 1854 Prussia succeeded in including in such a union the whole of southern and central Germany, with the exception of Austria. The states belonging to the Zollverein abolished all customs duties on their trade with one another, and agreed upon a common tariff in their trade with foreign countries. Railroads were developing rapidly in Germany in this period, and the Zollverein enabled its states to reap full benefit from the commerce which railroad building stimulated. At the same time, this commercial union exerted a powerful influence towards uniting Germany politically under Prussian headship. lution of The news of the February Revolution of 1848 in Paris, and the fall of Metternich in Austria, caused great excitement 761. Revothroughout Germany. Risings occurred in the great cities, 1848 in particularly in Munich (mu'nik) and Berlin. In the Prussia latter city barricades were erected, and street fighting occurred which caused the death of several hundred citizens (March, 1848). The kind-hearted but arbitrary and vacillating king, Frederick William IV, ordered the soldiers to withdraw from the city, and he donned the revolutionary colors the old black, red, and gold of the medieval Empire. He also summoned an assembly which drew up a constitution for Prussia. This constitution was later (1850) modified by the king into a very conservative instrument; nevertheless it was important because it made Prussia permanently a constitutional state. ment for German At the same time an impetus was given to the movement for German unity. In May, 1848, a "constituent parliament," 762. Move- elected by manhood suffrage from the different German states, met in the city of Frankfort, on the river Main. unity (1848- Its purpose was to draw up a constitution for a united 1849) Germany. Its members were chiefly university professors, lawyers, and journalists. The two great questions which confronted it were: (1) What territories should be included in the new Germany? (2) Who should be its head? On the first point the question especially was whether Austria should be allowed to bring into the new union her non-German provinces, with their 38,000,000 inhabitants, thus enabling her to overbalance the 32,000,000 of Germany proper. The second point involved a decision as to whether Austria or Prussia should be the head of the new state. The "parliament" at last decided (1) that Austria should be admitted with her German provinces only; and (2) that the crown of the new German Empire should be offered to the king of Prussia. Unfortunately, neither Austria nor Prussia would agree to these proposals. Austria was now regaining control of her revolted provinces and was thus free to act decisively in Germany. To the proposals of the Frankfort "parliament" she announced curtly that she "would neither let herself be expelled from the German Confederation, nor let her German provinces be separated from the indivisible Austrian monarchy." The king of Prussia, for his part, was afraid of war with Austria in case he accepted the headship of |