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In 1747 he published his Reproof, a Satire, being the second part of the Advice, continuing the same system of inveterate attack upon all the leading personages of the times. In the same year he married Miss Lascelles, who expected a portion of £3000 in West India property. Trusting to this expectation, he lived elegantly and hospitably; but being able to recover only a small part of the above sum, and that by means of expensive litigation, he got into serious pecuniary difficulties, which, compelled him to have recourse to his pen.

He accordingly devoted his time to literature, and brought out in 1748 his Adventures of Roderick Random, in 2 vols. 12mo. a work which both bettered his pecuniary circumstances, and widely extended his reputation.

The tragedy of the Regicide, already mentioned, was published by subscription in 1749, and he derived from it considerable emolument. He went to Paris in 1750, and about this time he composed his Adventures of Peregrine Pickle, with the Memoirs of a Lady of Quality, which appeared in 1751 in 4 vols. This work is marked with broad humour, and great know ledge of the world. Real personages and real incidents are often described, as in Roderick Random, but the adventures, and frequently the language, were stained with an indelicacy and immorality that were highly reprehensible. The edition was quickly sold; another was bought up in Ireland; and the work was translated into French. Our author received, too, a very handsome sum for inserting in this novel the Memoirs of Lady Vane, which were furnished by herself, and which gave additional popularity to the Notwithstanding the great success of Roderick Random and Peregrine Pickle, Smollett seems to have been anxious to quit the profession of an author. He obtained about this time the degree of M. D. probably from some foreign university, and he announced his intention to practise medicine, by a work entitled, An Essay on the External Use of Water, in a Letter to with particular Remarks upon the present method of using the Mineral Waters at Bath in Somersetshire, and a plan for rendering them more safe, agreeable, and efficacious, 1752, 4to. In the practice of physic, however, he was not successful, and was compelled again to have recourse to his pen. In 1753 he published his Adventures of Count Fathom, in 2 vols. 12mo. but it was neither so ably written nor so popular as its predecessors.

work.

Dr.

Encouraged by a liberal subscription, Smollett published, in 1795, a new translation of the History of the renowned Don Quixote, from the Spanish, &c. illustrated with 28 new copperplates, in 2 vols. 4to. When this work was printed, he made a visit to Scotland, to visit his mother, who then resided at Scotston in Peeblesshire; and he took an opportunity of visiting various parts of his native country, particularly the vicinity of Glasgow, the scene of his early affections, where he spent two days with Dr. Moore, then an eminent surgeon in that city.

When he returned to London, he was induced to take the chief management of the Critical Review, a new literary Journal, which began in 1756 under the patronage of the tories, and in opposition to the Monthly Review, which had commenced in 1749. His next work was, A Compendium of Authentic and En

tertaining Voyages, digested in a Chronological Series, in 7 vols. 12mo.

In 1757, when a stain had been left on the courage of England, our author wrote the Reprisal, or the Tars of Old England, an after-piece in two acts, intended to excite the national spirit. It was favourably received at Drury Lane, and is still a favourite on the stage.

Early in 1758, Smollett gave to the world his Complete History of England, deduced from the descent of Julius Cæsar to the treaty of Aix la Chapelle in 1748, in four vols. 4to. This work is said to have been composed and printed in fourteen months, a mental effort almost unrivalled. It was reprinted in the following year in eleven vols. 8vo. and the weekly sale was above 10,000.

When Sir John Mordaunt was tried for his unsuc

This

cessful expedition against Rochefort in 1757, some blame was cast upon Admiral Knowles, who defended himself in a pamphlet bearing his name. pamphlet was reviewed in the Critical Review with such improper acrimony, that the Admiral prosecuted the printer for a libel. When sentence was about to be pronounced against the printer, Smollett avowed himself the author, and was sentenced to a fine of £100 and three months imprisonment. This spirited conduct on the part of our author was highly applauded, and he was visited in the King's Bench prison by many of the most distinguished characters of the day. During his confinement he composed his Adventures of Sir Lancelot Greaves, which first appeared in detached portions in the monthly numbers of the British Magazine for 1760 and 1761, but it was afterwards published separately in two vols. in 1762. About this time he wrote the histories of France, Italy and Germany, for the modern part of the Universal History; and in 1761, 1762 and 1765, he published, in five volumes, his Continuation of the History of England

down to 1765.

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In 1763 our author had the misfortune to lose his only daughter, who died in the fifteenth year of her age, and left him in a state of hopeless despondency. The state of his own health, which too assiduous study had impaired, combined with this domestic calamity, induced him to quit England for a milder climate. He accordingly spent about two years in France and Italy, and on his return in 1766, he published his Travels through France and Italy, containing Observations on Character, Customs, Religion, Government, &c. with an account of the Climate of Nice, and a Register of the Weather, in 2 vols. 8vo.

Having arrived in Edinburgh in the beginning of 1776, and spent some time with his mother, he went to Glasgow and made a visit to his cousin Mr. Smollett of Bonhill. At this time he was distressed with rheumatism and an ulcer in his arm. He left Scotland in August without much change upon his health, and spent the winter in Bath. Here his ulcer assumed an alarming appearance, but by mercurial applica

tions, and corrosive sublimate taken internally, a cure reserved, with a certain air of dignity that seemed to almost miraculous was quickly effected.

Thus restored to health, he resumed his laborious toils, and in 1767 he published his History and Adventures of an Atom, in two vols. 12mo., a political romance, supposed to be written in 1768, and displaying under Japanese names the different party men in Great Britain from 1756 to 1761.

A recurrence of his ill health induced Dr. Armstrong and his other friends to recommend a journey to Italy; and from the inadequacy of his pecuniary resources, they applied to government for the office of consul at Nice, Naples, or Leghorn. Even this paltry situation was refused by the government of Britain to one of the most distinguished of her citizens, though it was asked not as a promotion to administer to his luxuries, but as a medicine to preserve his life. The minister who thus dared to insult the sufferings of genius, and to bring discredit upon the character of his sovereign and his country, merits what he will receive, the indignation of future ages. The government who had refused this pittance to a man whose name will throw a lustre over England when oblivion has mercifully withdrawn theirs from execration, had been supported in office by his wit and argument, and the only blame which they could lay to his charge was, that he refused to degrade himself by the sacrifice of his independence.

The mental agonies of Smollett, already too severe for his delicate and susceptible frame, were deeply aggravated by this act of base ingratitude. Dr. Dr. Moore has justly observed, that many feel remorse in a fearful degree on their death-bed from the thought of dying rich; but that none feel it from the thought of dying poor. Smollett enjoyed at least this consolation when he set out for Italy in 1770. After a short residence at Leghorn he retired to Monte Nuovo, a romantic situation in its vicinity. Here he composed and published in 1776, his Expedition of Humphry Clinker, in three vols. 12mo. a work which met with high approbation, and is regarded as one of the best of his works. This was the last effort of his pen. His bodily strength gradually declined, and he died at his house near Leghorn on the 21st October 1771, in the 51st year of his age.

indicate that he was not unconscious of his own powers. He was of a disposition so humane and generous that he was ever ready to serve the unfortunate, and, on some occasions, to assist them beyond what his circumstances would justify. Though few could penetrate with more acuteness into character, yet none was more apt to overlook misconduct when attended with misfortune.

His widow erected a plain monument to his memory, with an inscription by Dr. Armstrong. In 1774 a Tuscan column was erected to his memory on the banks of the Leven by his cousin, James Smollett, Esq. of Bonhill, with an inscription partly written by Dr. Johnson, Professor G. Stuart, and Mr. Ramsay of Ochtertyre.

He lived in a hospitable manner, but he despised that hospitality which is founded on ostentation. He invited to his plain but plentiful table, the persons whose characters he esteemed, in whose conversation he delighted, and many for no other reason than because they stood in need of his countenance and protection. ***

Free from vanity, Smollett had a considerable share of pride, and great sensibility; his passions were easily moved, and too impetuous when raised; he could not conceal his contempt of folly, his detestation of fraud, nor refrain from proclaiming his indignation. against every instance of oppression.

An edition of Smollett's works, in 8 vols. 8vo., was published in 1797, with Memoirs of his Life; to which is prefixed a View of the Commencement and Progress of Romance, by the celebrated Dr. Moore. Dr. Anderson had previously collected the poetical works of Smollett, which appeared with an excellent Memoir of his Life, in the works of the British Poets. The same learned editor published a new edition of his Miscellaneous Works, in 1796, and in 1803, he published in a separate volume, The Life of Tobias Smollett, M. D. with Critical Observations on his Works, which went through several editions. The following is Dr. Moore's estimate of Smollett's character:

"The person of Dr. Smollett was stout and wellproportioned, his countenance engaging, his manner

He was of an intrepid, independent, imprudent disposition, equally incapable of deceit and adulation, and more disposed to cultivate the acquaintance of those he could serve, than of those who could serve him. What wonder that a man of his character was not what is called successful in life."

SMUT. See AGRICULTURE.

SMYRNA, a city and seaport of Natolia in Asia Minor, situated towards the northern part of a peninsula upon a long and winding gulf of the same name, which is capable of containing the largest navy in the world. The town is about four miles round. It presents a front of a mile long to the water, and when approached by sea, it resembles a capacious amphitheatre, with the ruins of an ancient castle crowning its summit. The interior of the city, however, disappoints the expectations thus raised. The streets are narrow, dirty, and ill-paved, and the bazaars are in no respect handsome. Two caravanserahs with quadrangles within have a showy appear ance from the cupolas which cover them. The shops are arched over, and have a handsome appearance, notwithstanding the gloom which the houses wear; those along the shore have gardens attached to them, at the foot of which are summerhouses overhanging the sea. The castle of Smyrna, which was probably built by the Genoese, occupies a large hill at the east side of the city, and about three-fourths of a mile in circumference. There are no appearances of its having been very magnificent, the remains of a very thick and strong wall, being very like that which surrounded the city.

There is now scarcely a trace of those once splendid edifices which rendered Smyrna one of the finest cities of Asia Minor. The foundations of the theatre still appear on the slope of the hill. On the gateway of the castle is a fine, though mutilated colossal statue, supposed to be that of the Amazon Smyrna. There are marks of an extensive aqueduct, but its antiquity is doubted.

The river Meles which is here from 50 to 100 yards wide, waters an extensive and fertile plain behind the city, covered with numberless olive trees. This city is subject to earthquakes, and it has often suffered

from the plague, which, in 1814, carried off above 50,000 of the inhabitants.

The bay of Smyrna affords excellent anchorage, and the water is so deep, that sloops of considerable burthen can anchor close to the wharf.

Smyrna carries on an extensive trade with Europe on the one hand, and Asia on the other. Of all the Asiatic nations the Armenians carry on the greatest trade with this city, and the caravans from Persia are principally composed of them. The European shipping regulate their motions by the periods at which these caravans arrive and depart, in order that they may supply the Asiatics with the merchandise of the west, and may reload their own vessels with the goods of Asia. The English carry on the greatest trade with Smyrna, and are most esteemed. The French trade is carried on chiefly from Marseilles, and the Italian trade from Leghorn. The exports from Smyrna are coffee, cotton, wool, camel and goat's hair, currants, wax, soap, pearls, and lapis lazuli, precious stones, opium, rhubarb, amber, musk, and gums. The imports from Europe are piastres, cloth, silken stuffs, paper, cochineal, argol, indigo, sugar, lead, tin, glass, spices, dyewoods, &c.

In

The whole town is a continual bazaar, abounding with the best commodities of Europe and Asia. 1790, 1791, and 1792, the exports to London were £779,610, and the imports thence to Smyrna, £848,240.

The inhabitants of Smyrna are generally estimated at 100,000, and are composed as follows:

Turks
Greeks

Armenians
Europeans

50,000

30,000
15,000
5,000

The governor is appointed by the Porte. He decides the civil matters of the city; but in criminal cases he is subject to the cadi who is judge of the district. In the neighbourhood of Smyrna, there are some very fine villages, such as Bournabat, Cuklireiah, Bugiah, and Sadig, to which the more opulent inhabitants resort in summer. East Long. 27° 4′ 45′′, North Lat. 38° 29′.

SNAKE. See OPHIOLOGY.

SNELLIUS, WILLEBROD. See OPTICS. SNOW is the name given to the watery vapour in the upper region of the atmosphere, when frozen during its descent to the earth.

Snow is a congeries of an immense number of separate and transparent crystals of ice; and its whiteness is owing to the same cause as the whiteness of froth or of painted glass, namely, to the accumulated light which each separate crystal reflects to the eye

of the observer.

The specific gravity or density of snow is very variable, as the following table will show.

-No. of inches of snow that
yield one inch of water.

Sedileau

54

De la Hire

53

in 1710

12

Weidler

1728

9

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When the snow falls during frost the flakes are always less, and they are greater when the air is warm. In July 1819, in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, a slight shower of snow fell, in which the flakes were fully two inches and a half in length. Two or three years afterwards a similar fall was noticed in another part of Scotland.

Snow is occasionally found in North America in balls and in cylinders. On the 1st April 1815, Professor Cleaveland observed a great number of balls of snow from 1 to 15 inches in diameter, the small ones

being nearly spherical, and the larger ones somewhat extremely light, being composed of minute prisms of oval. Their texture was homogeneous, and they were snow irregularly aggregated. These balls were formed by having been rolled through a considerable distance by the wind, their paths upon the snow being, ever, were decidedly formed in the atmosphere, as in general, distinctly visible. The smaller balls, howthey occurred in woods and in small enclosures. Professor Silliman's Journal, vol. vi. p. 169.

See

Cylinders of snow were first observed by the Rev. deep snow was on the ground a shower of rain fell, D. A. Clark in Morris county, New Jersey. When a

and in consequence of a sudden cold the rain was congealed on the surface of the snow, and formed upon it a cake of ice. Another shower of snow fell to the depth of 3-4ths of an inch, and the sky having suddenly cleared, the cold became very intense, and the wind blew a gale. Nature, says M. Clark, now began her sport. Particles of snow would move upon the icy crust from 12 to 20 inches, and would then begin to roll, making a track upon the ice shaped like an isosceles triangle. The balls enlarged according to circumstances, and aided by the declivity of the ground, the rolls were of the size of a barrel, and some even larger. Thus the whole creation, as far as the eye could see, was covered with snow balls differing in size from that of a lady's muff, to two and a half or three feet in diameter, hollow at each end to almost the centre, and all as true as so many logs of wood shaped in a lathe.

In 1812 or 1813 Mr. Hitchcook observed at Deerfield, Massachusetts, similar cylinders of snow; none of them, however, were more than six or seven inches in diameter. See Professor Silliman's Journal, vol. ii. p. 132 and 375.

In the Arctic Regions, as Mr. Scoresby informs us, it snows nine days out of ten in the months of April, May, and June. With southerly winds near the borders of the ice, or where moist air blowing from the sea meets with a cold breeze from the ice, the heaviest falls of snow occur. In this case a depth of two or three inches sometimes falls in an hour. These heavy falls frequently precede sudden storms. The crystals of snow present an endless variety of forms. Descartes and Dr. Hook seem to have been the first who observed and delineated the among

This was what Muschenbroek calls starry snow, or that which was finely crystallized in the form of stars. VOL. XVII. PART I.

2 Q

*

figures of the crystals. Dr. Green and Dr. Langwell likewise observed them.† Dr. Stocke has delineated several beautiful forms of snow which fell at Middleburg in Zealand, in 1740 and 1742. The most elegant delineations, however, of the particles of snow are those which were executed by Dr. Nettis of Middleburg, to the number of 80, and given in the Philosophical Transactions, 1755, p. 644, and those which were observed by Mr. Scoresby in the Polar seas, given in his "Account of the Arctic Regions," to the amount of 96. The general size of the particles which exhibit these regular figures, is from one-fifth to onetwentieth of an inch. We should have copied several of the figures given by Dr. Nettis, but we prefer taking those of Mr. Scoresby, because he has described the magnitude of each particle which he has delineated, and the state of the barometer, thermometer, and weather, at the time when it fell. Mr. Scoresby arranges the various modifications and crystals which he has observed under five kinds.

1. Lamellar. 2. A lamellar or spherical nucleus, with spinous ramifications in different places. 3. Fine spicule or six-sided prisms. 4. Hexagonal pyramids. 5. Spiculæ, having one or both extremities affixed to the centre of a lamellar crystal.

1. Lamellar crystals. Mr. Scoresby assures us that the varieties of this modification are very numerous, occurring abundantly at all temperatures, and being very thin and transparent, and of a highly delicate structure. These, he says, may be divided into several distinct species.

curred in the crystals, though with this difference, that the lines which appear black in the plate, were all white in the originals. Figures 56, 63, 64, and 93, were opaque crystals, and were not so thin as the others.

a. Stelliform; having six points radiating from a centre, with parallel collateral ramifications in the same plane. This species, represented in Plate CCCCLXXXVIII. Fig. 1, is the most general form met with. It varies in size from the smallest speck, to about one-third of an inch diameter. It occurs in greatest profusion when the temperature approaches the freezing point.

The latter of these, as well as Fig. 94, each having twelve spines, appear to be accidental varieties, and are produced probably by the correct application of two similar crystals upon one another.

2. A lamellar or spherical nucleus with spinous rami. fications in different planes.-This genus not being easily represented, is not illustrated by any figure. It consists of two or three species.

a. The fundamental figure, consisting of a lamellar crystal of any of the species above described, from the lateral and terminal planes of which arise small spines, similar to the collateral ramifications of Fig. 1. These spines arise either from one or both of the lateral planes or principal surfaces, or from both lateral and terminal planes; and always maintain the usual angle of 60° with the plane from which they take their rise. The diameter of this figure sometimes exceeds the fourth of an inch. This species falls most frequently at a temperature of 20° or 25°.

b. Regular hexagon. This occurs in moderate as well as in the lowest temperatures; but it becomes more delicate and thin, and diminishes in size as the cold increases. Some specimens consist of simple transparent plates, (Fig. 23.) others are beautifully variegated, within the perimeter, by white lines, forming smaller hexagons or other regular figures, in immense variety; Fig. 25, 27, 28, 30; Fig. 49, &c. The size of this species is from the smallest visible speck to about one-tenth of an inch diameter.

c. Aggregations of hexagons. This beautiful species admits of immense variety. It occurs chiefly at low temperatures, and presents great limits of dimensions; Figs. 2, 9, 10, 14, 17; and Figs. 29, 34, 37, 39, &c. afford examples of this species.

b. Having a spherular nucleus, giving rise to radii in all directions. In the former species, the central figure is a transparent crystal; in this it consists of a small rough white concretion. The spines or radii are similar in both figures. The diameter of this seldom reaches a quarter of an inch. The form is echinose. This species falls when the degree of cold is near the freezing, and sometimes in rather low temperatures.

d. Combinations of hexagons, with radii or spines, and projecting angles. This constitutes the most extensive species in the arrangement; and affords some of the most beautiful specimens. Fig. 7, is an elegant combination of spines and hexagons; and Figures 50, 55, 58, 59, 60, &c. together with all the others distinguished by the letters after the numbers, constitute a novel and beautiful variety, which I have only once observed. The parallel lines that appear in these figures, are not intended as shadings, but actually oc

5. Fine spicule or six-sided prisms.-These are sometimes very delicate and crystalline; at others semble white hair cut into lengths not exceeding a white and rough. The finest specimens, which requarter of an inch, are so small and clear, that the exact figure is not easily determined; and the larger exhibit a fibrous or prismatic structure. Some of these are occasionally the third of an inch in length. This genus is only seen when the temperature is near the freezing point. When the thermometer is about 28 degrees, the finer specimens occur; when about the freezing, the coarser appear. The latter are very common during fog showers, and appear to be composed of aggregations of the frozen particles of the fog, and to have their origin in the lower parts of the atmosphere.

Micrographia, p. 89. and Fig 7-27. + Phil Trans. 1693, Edit. v. ii. p 258, and Plate XXVI. and Phil. Trans. 1762, p 112.

I have but once seen.

4. Hexagonal Pyramids.-This kind of snow-crystal A variety, consisting apparent ly of a triangular pyramid, was observed; but whether its base was a triangular or six-sided figure, similar to No. 96, is doubtful. These pyramids were about the thirtieth part of an inch in height, and fell along with some other curious figures, during a fresh gale of wind from the northward, in very large quantity. Figures 44, and 47, represent this kind of crystal.

5. Spicule or prisms having one or both extremities inserted in the centre of a lamellar crystal.-This is the most singular genus I have ever seen, and has been observed but twice. It resembles a pair of wheels, united by an axletree; the wheels consisting of hexagonal or other lamellar crystals, and the axle of a slenNo. 92 p. 5123. + Muschenbrook's Elem of Nat. Phil. Eng.

der prism. Fig. 43, 45, 46, and 48, represent this modification of snow-crystal. Fig. 46, consists of but one tabular crystal and a prism: and Fig. 45, of three lamine and two prisms. The length of this was one-sixth of an inch; of the other kind, from onethirtieth to one-tenth. Some of this extraordinary figure occurred along with the last-described genus: of which kinds, principally, a quantity of snow three or four inches in depth, once fell on the deck of the ship in which I sailed, in the course of a few hours. The temperature, when this kind of crystal fell, was in one instance 22°, and in the other 20°.

Plate CCCCLXXXVIII. contains representations of ninety-six different snow-crystals, magnified from thirty to about four hundred times. The Italic letter following the number of the figure, refers to the second column of the annexed Table, by which, the state of the atmosphere and weather, when each crystal was observed, may be seen. The fractional num

ber which succeeds the Italic letter, shows the diameter of the crystal in parts of an inch. The largest crystal represented was one-third of an inch diameter; the smallest one-thirty-fifth. They were all perfect figures. Many instances, it may be observed, occur of mutilated and irregular specimens; some wanting two or three radii, and others having radii of different sizes and shapes. But in low temperatures, the greatest proportion of crystals that fall are probably perfect geometrical figures. This constant regard to equality in the form and size of the six radii of the stellates; the geometrical accuracy of the different parts of the hexagons; the beauty and precision of the internal lines of the compound figures, with the proper arrangement of any attendant ramifications, and the general completion of the regular figure,compose one of the most interesting features in the Science of Crystallography.

A Table showing the State of the Atmosphere when each of the Figures of Snow delineated in
Plate CCCCLXXXVIII, were observed.

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The crystals thus described by Mr. Scoresby, and those delineated by Dr. Nettis, are obvious ice compound crystals; but they afford us no clue to determine the primitive form of the simple crystals of which they consist. This form has generally been supposed to be the rhombohedron; but Mr. Mohs and Mr. Haidinger maintain, that there is not, in the whole compass of rhombohedral forms, an example of the same formation as the stars with six radii of snow, while it is common enough in those species which belong to the prismatic system." From Dr. Brewster's experiments on ice, (See our article on ICE,) it necessarily follows that the form of crystallized water must, as he has inferred, belong either to the rhombohedail or to the pyramidal system. The prismatic system being thus excluded, so far at least as ice is concerned, Mr. Haidinger considers the pyra

midal form as the most probable one,* from the circumstance of tin ore and rutile, which belong to the pyramidal class, producing, by regular composition, crystallizations similar to the star-like figures of snow. That this is the case, has been put beyond a doubt by more recent observations by Dr. Brewster, made during the frost of the 18th and 19th November 1827, in which he found numerous and regular quadrangular plates, in the hoar frost, crystallized upon leaves and

stones.

SNOW, RED, the name given to snow of a red colour, which was found by Captain Ross at Baffin's Bay on the 17th August 1819. The mountains that were dyed red with the snow were about eight miles long, and 600 feet high. The red colour reached to the ground in many places ten or twelve feet deep, and continued for a great length of time.

• Edinburgh Journal of Science, No. xii. p. 287.

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