of facts, reports, encyclopædias, and publications devoted to special interests. In addition, biblio

graphical assistance may be obtained, when needed, from public libraries. The second step in investigation is reading and note-taking, for the purposes of clarifying the speaker's ideas about his subject, adding other ideas, and securing material for their elaboration and support. The method employed in reading and note-taking should observe economy of time and effort, combined with thoroughness. The investigator should take every advantage of tables of contents, indexes, and topical headings, both for the rapid locating of pertinent material, and the avoidance of that which is irrelevant or comparatively unimportant. In collecting data he is cautioned against carelessly encumbering his notes with useless matter. A further saving of time and effort is effected by taking notes in some such systematic manner as was suggested in this chapter. The third step in investigation is the adjustment of the notes to the end that each card, or card group, presents a definite, unified point, and that all material appears under its proper heading.

The second factor of preparation is outlining the speech. The rough draft consists of a list of all the points bearing upon the topic which the speaker can assemble. Studying his material he then decides upon the central theme or main

purpose of his address. It then remains to co-ordinate, subordinate, arrange, and fill in such details of elaboration as may seem desirable. The resultant draft completes the more substantial part of the preparation, and we may now turn to matters more especially concerned with form of expression.

CHAPTER VIII

EFFECTIVE STYLE IN SPEECH COMPOSITION

Practically every writer on public address, including not only the ancients like Cicero and Quintillian but also the most modern writers like Robinson and Winans, urge the necessity of both intellectual and emotional appeal. The various writers may differ as to the relative importance of conviction and persuasion, but they all agree that an address which is either cold, dry and mechanical, or wholly emotional is usually ineffective. It is indeed hardly to be questioned that a speech which makes no attempt to awaken the sympathies must ordinarily leave an audience indifferent; but in speaking to-day before the average intelligent audience a lack of real convincing substance is, undoubtedly, even a greater shortcoming. For this reason special attention has been given in the foregoing chapters to the basic matters which make for understanding and conviction on the part of the audience. At the same time, the discussion of aims and methods has incorporated much pertaining to the persuasive element because conviction and persuasion must

move hand in hand. The idea that the body of a speech should contain only convincing matter, and that the conclusion should embody the entire persuasive factor disregards human nature. We are not effectively convinced unless persuaded; nor are we truly persuaded unless convinced. Moreover, the notion that conviction lies wholly in the substance of a speech, and persuasion entirely in the form of expression is erroneous. So, in dealing with style, wherein form is emphasized more than substance, we are concerned not only with persuasion but also with conviction.

It is not an uncommon thing to hear a speaker who has an abundance of excellent speech-material, but who fails to make an effective address because he presents it poorly. Cicero went so far as to observe, "It is a great matter to know what to say and in what order to say it, but to know how to say it is a greater matter still." Perhaps the relative importance of form and substance has altered since the days of the great Roman, but it is still necessary to cultivate a style of speaking which shall present our material effectively both to the minds and the sympathies of our auditors. Each individual will, naturally, possess certain personal characteristics of expression, and as far as these meet with good results they are to be developed. One man, like Grady, has an unusual descriptive faculty; another, like Macaulay, is

especially effective in the use of balanced structure; a third, like Roosevelt, possesses a marked capacity for forceful phrasing. But the student of speaking must first acquire the basic qualities of a good style of expression, irrespective of any individual traits. The essentials of such a style are unity, coherence, clearness and force. These old friends of our rhetoric days are "true" if not always "tried," in the sense of being employed. But they are neglected at the expense of the speaker; for in whatever respects the style of address may have changed throughout its history, practical speaking has never profitably parted company with unity, coherence, clearness and force because the essential workings of the human mind have not changed. In order to think definitely and conclusively, a person must concentrate upon one thing, and proceed from beginning to end with clearness and logical sequence-a process which in itself is forceful.

A. UNITY

In its uncontrolled activities the mind does, indeed, make curious jumps at times-from Canadian reciprocity to string beans to bishops; thence to the thought of an uncomfortable collar only to alight, perhaps, upon a contemplation of Wagner's immortal Ring Cycle. But while such a disunified series is in some respects interesting, it has the