and took part in the Polish war of 1830; after which he remained for 12 years at Warsaw as lieutenant-general, occasionally employed on diplomatic missions to Berlin and Vienna. In 1843 he was appointed general of infantry and quartermaster-general of the entire Russian army, and removed to St. Petersburg, where he occupied, at the same time, the post of chief adjutant of the czar, and continued to act from time to time as diplomatist in Germany. After the outbreak of the revolutions of 1848 and 1849, he was sent on a mission to Austria, and when the eastern war broke out he was put in command of Revel and Esthonia, and subsequently of Finland. In 1849 the title of count was conferred upon him by the emperor Francis Joseph of Austria, and on Sept. 3, 1856, he was made a Russian count by Alexander II.

BERG, JENS CHRISTIAN, a Norwegian judge and statesman, born Sept. 23, 1775, whose name is connected with the principal events in Norway for almost the last century, and who took a conspicuous part, in 1816-'17, in the separation of Norway from Denmark. He was a member of the Norwegian bank administration in 1835, and delegate from the city of Christiania in 1837. He also distinguished himself in the sphere of Norwegian archæology by his contributions on the subject to the Norwegian press.

BERGAMA, a town of Asiatic Turkey, 50 or 60 miles N. N. E. of Smyrna, and famous for the ruins of the ancient city of Pergamus, on the site of which the modern town is built. The remains of several temples, of a prytaneum, gymnasium, amphitheatre, and other public buildings, bear witness to the magnificence of the ancient city. Many of the buildings of the town are constructed on the sites of ancient edifices, and one of the mosques was, probably, in former times, a Christian church. In the graveyard, also, are many interesting memorials of antiquity. Pop. about 10,000.

BERGAMI, BARTOLOMMEO. The celebrated trial of Queen Caroline, wife of George IV. of England, was principally founded upon a charge of adulterous intercourse with Bergami, who, in 1814, upon recommendation of the marquis Ghislieri, in whose and Gen. Pino's previous employment he had been, was attached to her household as courier, and subsequently promoted in Italy to the rank of baron, chamberlain, and master of the horse, Bergami, who had fought his way up in the Italian army from a common soldier to the rank of quarter-master, belonged to a respectable family, and the marquis Ghislieri described him to the queen as a person of character and attainments superior to his condition, and be spoke for him a kind treatment. This, and the personal advantages of Bergami, who was singularly good-looking, combining athletic strength and stature with almost feminine beauty, naturally disposed the queen in his favor. Moreover, he was full of loyalty and devotion, and on one occasion nearly

became the victim of poison which was intended for her. The queen not only showered favor after favor upon him, but also treated his whole family, especially a little child of his, with the greatest generosity and kindness. All these circumstances were used by her enemies as so many indications of her criminality, and during the trial one of the Italian witnesses, Teodore Majocchi, excited special indignation by his admitting every fact unfavorable to the queen, and by answering every question which might tell in her favor with Non mi ricordo. Bergami, who was at Pesaro during the trial, exclaimed, when he was apprised of her acquittal, but at the same time of her death, that she had been poisoned, and never could be convinced to the contrary. To the last he ever spoke of the queen with the greatest reverence and affection, and his deportment before and after her death led to the conclusion that he looked upon her rather as a benefactress than a mistress. However, wherever he went he became the observed of all observers. During his occasional excursions to Paris his apartments were crowded with visitors, consisting principally of ladies, who, under the pretext of having been friends of Queen Caroline, gratified their curiosity and obtained an interview with the portly courier. When at home he lived in great splendor; in the capitals of Italy, Rome, Naples, Milan, he was a lion, and the houses of "the best families" were open to him. The only persons who were the losers by the death of the queen were his servants, many of whom had been employed by that lady, who was always kind and considerate to all, while Bergami lived with a person of obscure birth, who was formerly a servant-girl, who had the superintendence of his house, and tyrannized over those below her as much as she could. At the time of the trial many different statements about Bergami's character were circulated in the house of lords, but however contradictory in many other respects, they all agreed in this one fact, that he was as inoffensive as he was good-looking a person, who probably would never have been heard of beyond the precincts of Italian barracks if it had not been for his relation with Queen Caroline, and for the peculiar construction which was put upon it by her enemies at the trial. His name in England was, by a curious mistake, spelt with a P.

BERGAMO, a province of the Austrian kingdom of Lombardy, pop. 340,000, bounded N. by the delegation of Valtelino, E. by those of Tyrol and Brescia, S. by Cremona, Lodi, and Crema, and W. by Milan and Como. It is divided into 18 districts, and these into 372 communes or parishes, contains 1 city, 22 markettowns, and 333 villages. The north, lying on the southern slope of the Rhætian Alps, is very mountainous, and covered with wood, but in the south are rich meadow lands. The rearing of silk-worms is the principal branch of industry, but there are also woollen

manufactures. The Bergamasks speak the worst dialect of Italy, and are notorious for their cunning and the drollery of their manners.-The capital of this province, also named Bergamo, population 38,000, is built in the form of an amphitheatre, on the side of a rocky hill, with fortifications constructed by the most eminent architects of the 16th century, 15 churches, 12 monasteries, 10 nunneries, 4 hospitals, 6 orphan-houses, a lyceum, a school of painting and architecture, a musical academy, which produced Donizetti, and a seminary with a library of about 50,000 volumes. Its most remarkable building is the Fiera, containing 600 booths, in which a great annual fair is held in August, the value of the goods disposed of sometimes exceeding $5,000,000, of which consists of silks. The public square is adorned with a statue of Torquato Tasso, whose father, Bernardo, was a native of the town. Bergamo was known to the Romans, and was taken successively by Attila, the Lombards, and Charlemagne. In the 12th century, it suffered much from the quarrels between the Guelphs and Ghibellines, and it fell under the dominion of Venice in 1428. In 1509 it was conquered by Louis XII. of France, but retaken by the Venetians, in whose possession it remained until 1796, when it passed into the hands of the French. In 1814 it was incorporated into the Lombard-Venetian kingdom, under the sway of Austria, under which it reluctantly remains.

BERGAMOT, a kind of green-colored citron or small orange, of fine flavor and taste, of round form; the fruit of the citrus margarita (Bergamia of Risso and De Candolle). The rind furnishes by distillation an essence or oil which is much used in perfumery, and to some extent in medicine. The bergamot tree is a native of the south of Europe, and is particularly abundant in the neighborhood of Nice. To obtain 2 ounces of oil, 100 bergamots are consumed. This oil or essence has a very agreeable, sweetish odor, and a bitter, aromatic taste. Its specific gravity is 0.885. In composition, it is not to be distinguished from oil of lemons. Alcohol is used to adulterate it, and is not readily detected when added only to the extent of 8 per cent. Also the name of a variety of pears, which, like the citron-tree of the same name, is said to have originated in Bergamo, in Italy. There are at least 9 sub-varieties of the bergamot pear, all of which are highly esteemed.-The word is used again to designate a coarse quality of tapestry, supposed to have been invented at the same place in Italy already referred to.

BERGASSE, NICOLAS, a French lawyer, born in 1750, at Lyons, died May 28, 1832. He became conspicuous at Paris in the case of Kornmann against his wife, in which he had Beaumarchais among his opponents. His memorials in favor of his client had a success nearly equal to that won several years before by the witty dramatist in his struggle against La

blache and Goezman; both mixed politics with their pleadings, and while thus courting public opinion, augmented that growing dissatisfaction with existing institutions which prepared the way for the revolution. In 1789 he was elected deputy to the states-general by the tiers-état of Lyons. He soon, however, became dissatisfied with the revolution, and retired to private life. He was arrested in 1794, but the 9th Thermidor saved him from the guillotine. He wrote on various political and philosophical subjects, but only his Mémoires against Beaumarchais are now remembered.

BERGEN, a north-eastern county of New Jersey, bordering on New York, and having an area of about 350 sq. miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Hudson river, on the W. bank of which, within the limits of this county, are the "palisades," a remarkable range of trap-rock rising perpendicularly from the river to a height of nearly 500 feet. It is intersected by Ramapo, Hackensack, and Saddle rivers, which afford valuable water power. The surface of the county is uneven, and in the western part mountainous. The soil, particularly near the rivers, is productive, and in 1850 yielded 150,709 bushels of corn, 57,686 of oats, 166,368 of potatoes, 16,582 tons of hay, and 328,759 pounds of butter. There were in operation during the same year, 1 manufactory of printed calicoes, 4 cotton, 1 woollen, 15 flour, 3 paper, and 15 saw-mills. The public schools contained 2,725 pupils. Limestone and magnetic iron ore are the chief minerals. The county was organized in 1710, and has since been much diminished by the formation of Passaic and Hudson counties. Pop. in 1855, 17,774. Capital, Hackensack.

BERGEN, or BERGEN'S-STIFT, a province and diocese in southern Norway, consisting of the amter or bailiwicks of Nordre and Söndre (north and south) Bergenhuus, and a part of the amt of Romsdal; pop. in 1855, S. Bergenhuus, 104,762; N. Bergenhuus, 81,496; total pop. of the province, 195,000.-The capital is Bergen, a fortified city and seaport; pop. in 1855, 25,797; built on a peninsula, at the head of a deep inlet, and has an excellent harbor; lat. 60° 24' N., long. 5° 18' E. The town forms an amphitheatre, and is surrounded by lofty hills on the land side; it has a cathedral, churches, hospitals, a theatre, museum, diocesan college, naval academy, charitable institutions, and 5 public libraries. It is the seat of a court of secondary jurisdiction, of one of the 3 treasuries of the kingdom, and of a branch of the Norwegian bank. The harbor is defended by several forts, and a naval squadron is usually stationed here. Bergen sends 4 representatives to the storthing or legislature. The fisheries form the most important interest of the place, fleets of small vessels from the north bringing fish, blubber, roes, &c., in summer, to exchange for goods. Its exports are stock-fish, lobsters, herrings, cod-oil, horns, fish-roes, skins, iron, timber, and rock-moss. Bergen was founded in the 11th century, and for a long time was a

member of the Hanseatic league. It has lost much of the commercial importance which it enjoyed toward the close of the 16th century. BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, a strongly fortified maritime town of the province of North Brabant, in Holland, situated on the river Zoom, near its confluence with the East Scheldt, 17 miles N. N. W. of Antwerp; pop. 7,000. The town is well built, with spacious squares, has a good harbor, 2 arsenals, earthenware manufactories, and some trade in anchovies. Its defences, deemed almost impregnable, are the chef-d'œuvre of the famous Coehorn, the rival of Vauban. It was besieged unsuccessfully by the prince of Parma, in 1588, and by the marquis of Spinola, in 1622. In 1747, the French, under Marshal Löwendal, took it by stratagem, and it was surrendered to Gen. Pichegru in 1795. Sir Thomas Graham attempted to carry it by a night attack, March 8, 1814, but was repulsed with the loss of two-thirds of his force.

BERGERAC, SAVINIEN CYRANO DE, a French writer and duellist, born in 1620, in Périgord, died at Paris, in 1655. He gained a brilliant reputation in his day, by his readiness to fight a duel, of which he passed safely through several hundred. A cough, a look, a tone of the voice, a gesture, was sufficient to superinduce a challenge from the pugnacious Bergerac. As his nose had been terribly hacked up in these rencontres, and as people could never refrain from smiling at sight of the battered and mangled feature, Bergerac was never at a loss for a quarrel. However, the sobering influence of years turned his energies into a new channelthat of philosophy, which he studied under Gassendi, in company with Molière, and wrote plays, from which later writers have drawn without acknowledgment.

BERGHAUS, HEINRICH KARL WILHELM, a German geographer, born at Cleves, May 3, 1797. He served as a volunteer in the war of liberation against the French, and entered France with the allies, which gave him the opportunity of making his first map, which was of France. In 1816 he became geographical engineer in the war department of the Prussian ministry. In 1824 he was appointed professor of mathematics to the Berlin academy of architecture; and in 1836, director of the royal school of geographical art in Pottsdam. The first edition of his "Physical Atlas," in 90 maps, was published at Gotha, from 1838 to 1849; a second edition has since appeared. The 1st part depicts the meteorology and climatology of the world; the 2d, its hydrology and hydrography; the 3d, its geology; the 4th, its magnetic diversity; 5th, the geographical distribution of plants; 6th, the geographical distribution of animals; 7th, anthropology; 8th, ethnography. Prof. Johnston, of Edinburgh, has made this great work of Berghaus the basis of his "Physical Atlas." He brought out a German edition of George Catlin's original work, "North American Indian Portfolio," and an immense variety of geographical and

ethnographical works, of which we will enumerate only 2, the Atlas von Asien, in 18 maps, and the Völker des Erdballs.

BERGHEM, NIKOLAAS, a Dutch painter, born at Haarlem, in 1624, died Feb. 18, 1683. His father, Peter Klaas van Haarlem, a painter of still life, gave him his first instructions in the art, after which he studied under Van Goyen, Weenix, and other eminent masters, whose influence did not prevent him from forming a style of his own. His pictures are principally landscapes, with groups of figures and cattle, and are remarkable for effective composition, harmonious coloring, and admirable atmospheric effects, in which he was unsurpassed by any painter of his time, although the brothers Both, who employed similar subjects, were formidable rivals. He painted rapidly, but his pictures are beautifully finished, and command enormous prices at the present day. He also executed a number of admirable engravings and etchings with a nicety of finish unusual in a painter.

BERGHOLTZ, or NEW BERGHOLTZ, a village of Wheatland township, Niagara co., N. Y., about 15 miles N. of Buffalo. It was settled in 1843, by Lutheran emigrants from the Prussian town of the same name. Pop. about 2,000.

BERGIER, NICOLAS SYLVESTRE, a French priest and philosopher, born at Darnay, in Lorraine, Dec. 31, 1718, died in Paris, April 9, 1790. He was the author of numerous works, on a great variety of subjects, and filled various ecclesiastical offices. He began life as the curé of a little village of Franche-Comté, and was afterward made professor of theology, superior of the college of Besançon, and canon of the cathedral of Paris. He was member of the academy of inscriptions and belles-lettres, and an inveterate enemy of the encyclopædists.

BERGMAN, TORBERN OLOF, a Swedish chemist and naturalist, born at Catharineberg, in West Gottland, March 9, 1735, died at Medevi, July 8, 1784. Intended by his father for the law or the church, he was sent to the university of Upsal. There he devoted himself with such ardor to the study, not only of the languages but especially of mathematics and natural history, that his health became disordered, and he was obliged to retire for several months from the university. He passed the interval in the study of botany and entomology, and was now permitted by his parents to pursue that scientific career which accorded with his tastes and which the fame of Linnæus rendered attractive. He sent to Linnæus several insects previously unknown in Sweden, and devised a new method for their classification founded upon the characteristics of the larva. His first paper, published in the memoirs of the academy of Stockholm, in 1756, narrated the important discovery that leeches are oviparous, and that the substance called coccus aquatious was the ovum of a species of leech containing several of the young animals. Linnæus wrote upon the memoir as he gave it his sanction, Vidi, et obstupui. Berg

man devoted himself from this time to almost every branch of science, producing original results in every department of his studies. He presented memoirs to the academy upon attraction, electricity, twilight, the rainbow, and the aurora borealis; became in 1761 adjunct professor of physics and mathematics, at Upsal, and was appointed in the same year one of the astronomers to observe the first transit of the planet Venus over the sun. In 1758, an association of savants was formed for the purpose of advancing a knowledge of the earth; to each of the members a particular portion of the subject was assigned, and Bergman received the department of physics. The report which he made after 8 years of study displayed a masterly knowledge of chemistry and mineralogy, and was rapidly sold and translated into foreign languages. When, in 1766, a vacancy occurred in the chemical chair of the university, by the resignation of Waller, he was, by the favor of Prince Gustavus III., appointed to that position, and he immediately silenced the murmurs of his opponents by publishing a curious and original memoir on the manufacture of alum. From this time he devoted himself wholly to the study of chemistry. Accustomed to the rigid method of geometry, he determined to banish from chemical science all preconceptions, and to proceed only by observation of facts. This purpose he expressed in his discourse on the search for truth, in which he distinguished the Cartesian or contemplative method from the Newtonian or experimental, and preferred the latter. His first step was to furnish his laboratory with abundant materials and utensils for experiment, and to arrange around it a vast mineralogical collection. He published in 1774 a paper "On the Aerial Acid," subsequently called carbonic acid, and he proved by a variety of experiments that it was a new and distinct acid. By boiling nitric acid with sugar, gum, and other vegetable substances, he produced oxalic acid. By a skilful employment of unusual reagents he succeeded in analyzing mineral waters, and he formed factitious mineral waters by a combination of their elements. In his researches on this topic he adopted the opinion that caloric is a fluid like electricity, and was the first discoverer of sulphuretted hydrogen, which he called the hepatic gas. He was the first to employ the humid method in the examination of minerals, and by combining it with the dry method he obtained a knowledge of the principal elements of the emerald, topaz, sapphire, and other precious stones. He was the first also to derive important results in chemistry from the use of the blow-pipe. All of his labors led him to a chemical classification of the minerals, according to which the genera were determined by the principal integrant elements, the species by the different degrees in which they were combined, and the varieties by the external form. Applying geometry to the forms of crystals, he laid the foundation for the theory of crystallization afterward develop

ed by Haüy. He demonstrated that the superiority of certain kinds of steel was due to the presence of manganese, and that the brittleness of steel in extreme cold was caused by siderite, a substance which he thought a new metal, although it has since been recognized as the phosphuret of iron. The theory of affinities, proposed by Geoffroy, in 1718, had been the first step toward giving a philosophical foundation to the science of chemistry. Bergman seizing upon this idea, made it almost his own by an immense number of new experiments, and presented chemical phenomena as only modifications of the great law which rules the universe. To the curious operations of the elements when placed in juxtaposition-2 united elements being separated by the approach of a 3d with which one of them combines, and 2 compounds as they meet each other inter-exchanging some of their elements and thus forming 2 new compounds-to these elementary movements, as if by power of instinct or of choice, he assigned the name elective, and introduced the term, which has since passed from chemistry into sentimental literature, of elective affinities. His mathematical training is seen in the simple formulas by which he described chemical operations. He adopted the erroneous though ingenious ideas of Scheele concerning phlogiston, and in general his discoveries of facts were of much more value than his theoretical explanations. His labors distinguished him throughout Europe; he corresponded with the principal contemporary chemists and physical philosophers, was a member of numerous learned societies, and received from the king of Sweden the order of Wasa. He remained at Upsal, though invited to Berlin by Frederic the Great, till the state of his health broken by his immense labors obliged him to repair to the mineral springs where he died.

BERGUES (Fr. Bergues-St.- Winoc), a strongly fortified town of France, department of Nord, 5 miles S. S. E. of Dunkirk, pop. 5,668. The surrounding country, which is low, can be inundated at pleasure, by means of works provided for the purpose. The most remarkable object in the town is an old tower, 160 feet high, probably of Spanish origin. Bergues is connected with the sea, at Dunkirk, by a canal navigable for vessels of 250 tons burden.

BERHAMPOOR, a town of Hindostan, presidency of Bengal, 6 miles south of the city of Moorshedabad, on the river Bhagruttee. It contains extensive barracks for British troops.

BERINGTON, JOSEPH, an English Catholic author, born in the county of Shropshire, in 1744, died in Berkshire, Dec. 1, 1827. He was educated at the college of St. Ömer, in France, and exercised sacerdotal functions in France for many years. His first work was "A Letter on Materialism, and Hartley's Theory of the Human Mind" (1776). About this time, the English Catholics found their position much stronger in the arena of public opinion, and began to think of appearing there openly. Bering

ton, in 1779, published a letter to Fordyce, on his "Sermon against Popery." In 1780 appeared his "State and Behavior of English Catholics from the Reformation till 1780." In 1786 he came forward with "An Address to the Protestant Dissenters," who had lately petitioned for a repeal of the corporation and test acts. In 1787 appeared the "History of Abelard and Heloise," with their genuine letters, and "An Exposition of Roman Catholic Principles, in reference to God and the Country," and other pamphlets. In 1790, Berington gave to the world a "History of Henry II." (of England), vindicating the character of Becket from Lord Lyttleton's attacks. In 1793 appeared his "Memoirs of Gregorio Panzani," papal legate to England in 1634-36, translated from the Italian. This publication displeased many of the author's own persuasion, who called in question the authenticity of the memoirs, but without success. In 1796 he published a tract in deprecation of using the device of pretended miracles as a means of rousing the Italian peasantry against the French. But his most important work appeared in 1814, a "Literary History of the Middle Ages," giving an account of the state of learning from the close of the reign of Augustus to its revival in the 15th century."

BÉRIOT, CHARLES AUGUSTE DE, an eminent violinist, born at Louvain, in Belgium, Feb. 20, 1802. He early showed an aptitude for the violin, and in 1821 went to Paris to perfect himself in the performance of it, under Viotti, and other accomplished masters. Soon after, he performed in public, at the same time with Paganini, and at once took high rank as a violinist. Subsequently he made extensive professional tours over Europe, and on his return to his native country, received a pension from the king. In March, 1836, he married the celebrated singer, Malibran, who died suddenly 6 months afterward. From that time until 1842 he gave concerts, and in that year was appointed professor of the violin in the conservatoire of Paris. His style of playing is finished and classical; but as a composer, he is not much esteemed.

BERKELEY, a county in the N. E. corner of Virginia, on the Potomac, organized in 1772, and named after Gov. Berkeley; area, about 250 sq.m. Its surface is uneven and broken, and its soil stubborn and underlaid with lime-stone and slate, through which permeate numerous sulphur and chalybeate springs. The Baltimore and Ohio railroad passes through it. Live stock, wheat, Indian corn, and wool, are its principal products. In 1850 it yielded 356,234 bushels of wheat, 171,686 of Indian corn, 50,531 of oats, 6,667 tons of hay, and 157,850 pounds of but ter. There were 50 mills of different kinds, a railroad machine shop, 4 tanneries, 30 churches, and 550 pupils attending public schools. In 1850, its real estate was valued at $4,408,018; in 1856, at $5,097,188, showing an increase of 15 per cent. Value of live stock in 1850,

$366,140. Pop. in 1850, whites, 9,566; free colored, 249; slaves. 1,956; total, 11,771. Capital, Martinsburg.

BERKELEY, a market town and parish of Gloucestershire, England, situated about 11 mile from the Severn, on one of its tributaries; pop. of the parish, 4,344. The town is built on an eminence in a rich valley, famous for its dairy products, particularly for its cheese. It has a handsome church, in which Dr. Jenner was buried, a grammar school, town hall, and market house. The Bristol and Gloucester railway passes through the place. It was a town of great wealth and importance at the time of the Norman conquest. The coal trade, formerly considerable, has fallen off of late years, and timber and malt are the articles chiefly dealt in. Berkeley castle, in which Edward II. was confined and murdered in 1327, stands on an eminence S. E. of the town. It is one of the finest specimens of an old feudal castle in the kingdom, being in a perfect state of preservation.

BERKELEY, GEORGE, an Irish prelate and philosopher, born at Kilerin, in the county of Kilkenny, March 12, 1684, died at Oxford, Jan. 13, 1753. His father, William Berkeley, came of a family noted for its loyalty to Charles I., and was himself rewarded by the collectorship of Belfast. The son received his early education at Kilkenny school, was subsequently transferred to Trinity college, Dublin, and became fellow of that institution in 1707. About the same time, he published a mathematical tract, which attracted some notice, and this was followed, in 1709, by a much more important work, "An Essay toward a new Theory of Vision." In this he maintained the doctrine that the eye has no natural perception of space, and that all its perceptions of distance, size, and position, are derived from the sense of touch. This theory has been very generally_adopted, although questioned by Sir David Brewster, one of the best authorities in modern science. Berkeley himself vindicated his theory in a pamphlet written 24 years after his essay was published; but this tract is not included in his published works. In 1710 appeared his work entitled, "A Treatise concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge," &c.; and in 1713, his "Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous." these famous works, Berkeley denies the existence of matter, and argues that it is not without the mind, but within it, and that that which is generally called matter is only an impression produced by divine power on the mind, by means of invariable rules styled the laws of nature. These works gained many converts to Berkeley's theory, yet some writers insist that they contain the strongest arguments against revelation, when they were in fact really intended to combat the fallacies of the enemies of revealed religion. Beattie's opinion is that they have a sceptical tendency, and Hume expresses himself even more plainly, regarding them as the best weapons of scepticism to be found in

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