the clergy, and proclaimed a return to the simple decencies of the gospel age. Bernard hated luxury in the priesthood, but he hated schism more; and the same voice which had protested against the persecution of Jews counselled the extermination of rebellious Christians. A rabbi could praise the good monk who had saved him from massacre, but numbers of men and women whose crime was that they exalted virtue above submission, were sent to death by the approval of this same monk. It is the darkest spot in Bernard's life. More pleasant is the story of his refutation, at the council at Rheims, in 1148, of the Sabellian bishop, Gilbert of Poitiers. Warned by the fate of Abelard, the heretic bishop found it expedient to save himself by judicious concessions. In vain, after this, did they try to engage Bernard in the preaching of a new crusade. His public life was finished. His last 5 years were passed in comparative retirement, varied only by literary occupations and the visits of distinguished friends. Gumard, king of Sardinia, and Pope Eugenius, were at different times his guests. The "burning and shining light of the Irish church," Malachi, saint and bishop, died on a visit to the home of his early friend, and it was Bernard's privilege to close the eyes and write the life of this dear brother in the faith. That biography established Malachi's right to sainthood. The abbess Hildegard, the marvel and the enigma of Christian Europe in all the 12th century, found in Bernard a friend who vindicated her at Rome, and believed that her gift of prophecy was real. In these last years the most remarkable of Bernard's compositions were written. But his physical powers were waning to their end. Early in 1153 a sickness attacked him, in which distress of mind aggravated his pains of body. His friend Eugenius had departed, with his other friends, before him, and he had no wish to live longer in a world so full of sin, and care, and sorrow. Sad words he dictated from his sick bed, telling the trial of his weary heart. Yet his faith did not fail, and he was ready for more service if the church had need of him. Summoned by the archbishop of Metz to heal a bloody feud which had arisen in his diocese, between the knights and the people, he rose from his bed, made a rapid journey of some 50 miles, and met the contending parties as they stood arrayed on either side of the Moselle. The nobles ridiculed the interference of this ghost, scorned his words, and laughed at the dream which he told them. But that very night the prophecy of peace which he left was fulfilled, the hearts of the knights were melted, and the Gloria in excelsis was chanted by the united hosts. This last effort was fatal. Bernard returned to his convent to die. At the age of 63, surrounded by his brethren, he breathed his last. His body was buried in the church at Clairvaux. He had been abbot 38 years. The public voice demanded his immediate canonization. In the year 1165, 12 years after his death, his name

was set in the calendar of the church by Pope Alexander, though, from the great number of candidates, it was not openly proclaimed among the saints until 1174.-Few men have better deserved this honor. Few have loved the church with more steadfast and unselfish devotion. Few have rendered to it more signal services. On his moral purity no stain rests. His stern integrity has never been doubted. He enforced upon others no rule to which he was not ready to conform, no duty which he was not ready to do. If he loved influence and was not insensible to praise, he compromised no principle, and he adopted no policy for the sake of power or applause. He was by nature loyal to tradition, and suspicious of novelty. Severe sometimes in his judgments of others, he was always severe in his judgment of himself. His temper was that of a champion and a ruler, but not of a despot. Skilled in diplomatic arts, he was yet intolerant of all temporizing or hesitation in the service of truth. The church knew him as a trusty servant, faithful to his profession, terrible to all its foes. Lacking that kindness of manner and that broad charity which made Peter the Venerable, of Cluny, the friend of the unfortunate, Bernard gained the ennobling reputation of guardian to the faith. No man of his age had a wider renown. No man of that age fills a larger place in its history. Bernard's reputation rests on 4 substantial grounds, his integrity and consistency of personal character, his remarkable executive ability, his eloquence as a preacher, and his affluence and skill as a writer. Of his personal character we have already spoken. In proof of his executive ability, apart from the fact that he was for a long term of years the virtual dictator of the church, we have the record of the monasteries which he founded or gathered, viz.: 35 in France, 11 in Spain, 10 in England and Ireland, 6 in Flanders, 4 in Italy, 2 in Germany, 2 in Sweden, 1 in Hungary, and 1 in Denmark. At Clairvaux at the time of his death, there were 700 brethren. Such organizing power was unprecedented in medieval Christian history, and seemed to entitle Bernard to rank with Basil and Paul. It is not easy, at this distance of time, to measure Bernard's influence as a preacher and a writer. His treatises, authoritative as they still are, have been superseded by the works of Bellarmin and Aquinas, and his sermons do not justify or explain his singular fame for pulpit eloquence. It needs nice discrimination to separate his genuine writings from those which have been falsely attributed to him. Some of these latter are palpable forgeries; but some are close imitations of his style and manner. The genuine writings of Bernard may be divided into 3 classes: epistles, sermons, and treatises, moral and theological. Of the epistles 480 are contained in the collections of Mabillon and Martène, 439 of which were the work of Bernard himself, the remainder being either addressed to him or drawn up by his

secretary. These letters are addressed to 5 classes of persons: 1, to monks and abbots; 2, to archbishops, bishops, and secular priests; 3, to the pope and the various officials at the Roman court; 4, to princes, nobles, and statesmen; 5, to private individuals. The subjects of the letters are very various. Some are monastic, dwelling on the needs and the methods of cenobite life. Some are mystical, descanting upon the doubts and struggles of the soul on its way to perfection. Some treat of the general principles of right and duty, some of particular applications of those principles. Many of the letters are concerned with matters of elections in the church, questions of disputed episcopal authority or fidelity. Many of them are political, many dogmatical, some highly polemic, and not a few purely complimentary and personal. Chronologically, the letters may be ranged into 4 series: the first covering 11 years, from 1119 to 1130; the second 8 years, from 1130 to 1138; the third 7 years, from 1138 to 1145; and the fourth the remaining 8 years of the writer's life. The general characteristics of all these letters are earnestness, energy, clearness of expression, and a fierce sincerity. One spirit breathes through them all. The style is unequal, in most instances rugged and harsh, quite lacking the grace which adorns the letters of Abelard. The efforts at wit are undignified, especially the occasional travesties of the sentences of the Scriptures. It may be said in mitigation of the judgment of Bernard's rough style, that the words of many of his epistles are not his own, that he furnished the thoughts to be clothed in words by his scribes. There are some in the collection, notably those addressed to Innocent and Eugenius, which are tenderly pathetic, and may pass as fine examples of this kind of composition. The sermons of Bernard, 340 in number, may be arranged into 4 classes: 86 on the Canticles of Solomon; 86 on the events of the ecclesiastical year; 43 on the saints and the virgin; and 125 miscellaneous. Most of them are short. The sermons on the Canticles exhibit Bernard's fondness for allegories, and his skill in extracting moral teaching from erotic and poetical description. They explain only the first 2 chapters of this book. Gilbert of Holland, about 25 years after Bernard's death, published a continuation of the series on the Canticles, bringing the work down to the middle of the 5th chapter. The sermons of Bernard cannot be regarded as eminent specimens of religious oratory. They are cold, ethical, sometimes even obscure. Written in Latin, they seem poorly adapted to make impression even upon those hearers to whom the Latin tongue was still intelligible. It is greatly to be regret ted, that the sermons in the common tongue, by which Bernard was enabled to awaken such a mighty revival in Europe, have not been preserved to us, rather than the uninspiring and scholastic compositions which remain to attest his gifts as a preacher. The actual impressive

ness of his preaching is paralleled only by the stories of the crowds in England and America which were moved and swayed by the appeals of Whitefield; while the written monuments of that preaching which survive seem, as in the case of Whitefield, wholly inadequate to such a result. The best sermons of the collection are the eulogies of departed brethren. Of the 12 treatises of Bernard, the first in time is entitled the "Twelve Degrees of Humility and Pride." This youthful treatise is very carefully drawn up, and the antitheses, though redundant, are often ingenious. The work on "The Love of God," seems to show that Bernard was not a believer in perfect disinterestedness of love. It is a logical and accurate treatise. The "Apology" is a severe polemic attack upon the disorders and extravagances of the monks of Cluny. The language is sharp and bitter. The treatise on "Grace and Free-will" is more subtle than thorough as a discussion of that subject. The treatise De Conversione ad Clericos, exposes the iniquities which had crept into the ecclesiastical life, and urges a reform. The "Exhortations to the Knights Templars," is a panegyric on that impetuous order of religious servants, with the anomaly of whose state Bernard's disposition and taste readily sympathized. Baptism and the Incarnation are treated in a work first addressed as a letter to Hugo St. Victor. Another treatise refutes the "Errors of Abelard." Another, on "Precept and Dispensation,' answers interesting questions of monastic morality, and is still considered an excellent convent manual. The only biographical work of Bernard is his life of the bishop Malachi, which relates prodigies, and indulges equally in pious reflections and in harshness of censure. The last and most important of the treatises of Bernard is his work on "Consideration," suggested by the visit of Pope Eugenius to his monastery, and dedicated to that pontiff It is in 5 parts. In the 1st, he insists upon the necessity of gaining and preserving the habit of religious meditation; in the 2d, he tells what a pope ought to be and to do; in the 3d, he deals with the relation of the nations of the earth to the papacy; in the 4th, he considers the officers and servants of the papal court; and in the 5th, he explains the relation of the pope to superior intelligences, to the angels, and to God. The writings of Bernard give us the idea of a patient and diligent scholar, working in a limited range of study. He knew well the letter of the Scriptures, but he quotes it chiefly from the Vulgate, and shows little acquaintance with the Greek or Hebrew text. Among the fathers, Augustine was his favorite, and his dogmatic system was a reproduction of that great master. A moderate knowledge of the classics, especially of Ovid, enables him to vary with occasional heathen fancies, the severe force of his argument and invective. He had the faculty of bringing in at the right time and place all his knowledge, and his singular memory enabled him to call up for practical

use illustrations which another would have lost. Yet he was able to assimilate his fruits of study, and no great doctor of the church seems less indebted to his culture for his influence. He was an original thinker, independent in his opinions, and his fresh strength makes the old views which he produces seem new and peculiar. In his case, a mind naturally imaginative was trained and disciplined to the exigencies of service in affairs and to the commanding restraints of established institutions and traditional truth. One would hardly be prepared to find in such a writer the talent of the hymnist, or to expect from such a source the stanzas of a Prudentius or a Gregory. Yet the works of Bernard have their appendix of anthology. The watchman of the church found leisure to be a poet. And among the most praised hymns of the Roman breviary is that long meditation upon the Saviour in stanzas of four-fold rhyme, Jesu, dulcis memoria, which has the charm of musical cadence, if it lacks the merit of correct Latinity. The works of Bernard have been frequently republished. The standard edition is that of Mabillon, in 1690, in 2 vols., folio. This contains valuable notes, in addition to the edition of 1667. A new edition appeared in 1719 and in 1726. Another less valuable but more convenient edition, by the same famous Benedictine, is in 9 vols. 8vo. The biographies of Bernard, some of which descant most eloquently upon his power as a miracle-worker, which in this sketch has been left unnoticed, but which has been for ages and is still a source of the reverence in which as a saint he is held, leave nothing to be desired concerning his his tory. French, Italian, German, and English writers have made his life a special study. The most recent and accessible are the biographies of the abbé Ratisbonne (2 vols. Paris, 1846), Neander (Berlin, 1841), Montalembert, Daunon, in vol. 13 of "French Literary History," and Abel Desjardins (Dijon, 1845).

BERNARD, CLAUDE, a French physician and physiologist, born at St. Julien, in the department of Rhone, July 12, 1813. In 1834 he went to Paris, intending to pursue literature as a vocation, but not meeting with success, soon gave up the attempt, and devoted himself to the study of medicine. He has especially distinguished himself by his researches in comparative anatomy and physiology, and has been professor in the college of France during the last 10 years. He has made special studies of the liver and pancreas.

BERNARD, EDWARD, a versatile English scholar and divine, born May 2, 1638, near Towcester, in Northamptonshire, died at Oxford, Jan. 12, 1697. Distinguished for a rare knowledge of oriental languages and for his scientific attainments, he graduated with high honors at the university of Oxford, officiated in 1669 as deputy professor, and on Christopher Wren's retirement in 1673, as professor of astronomy, and finally in 1691, after having spent a year at Paris, as tutor to the children of

Charles II. by the duchess of Cleveland, he relinquished the astronomical chair, and became rector of Brightwell, in Berkshire. In mathematics he rendered himself especially useful at Oxford, while he left beside a great mass of unprinted matter, over 15 distinct scientific and theological publications and annotations on classical works. One of his most valued productions is on the subject of the ancient weights and measures; and the Catalogus Manuscriptorum Angliæ et Hiberniæ, prepared by him, and published in 1697, for the university of Oxford, is still used in that institution at the present day. BERNARD, SIR FRANCIS, an English lawyer, governor of the American province of New Jersey, from 1758 to 1760, and of Massachusetts, from 1760 to 1769, died in London, July 1, 1818. It was his misfortune to preside over the latter province, and to be an advocate of the claims of the crown, and of coercive measures, in the period shortly preceding the outbreak of the American revolution. With no talent for conciliating, and no insight into the spirit which animated the people whom he governed, he fanned the discontent which the English ministry originated. He brought the troops into Boston, and prorogued the general court when it refused to make provision for their support. He secretly sought to undermine the constitution of the province, by changing its charter, so as to transfer the right of appointing the council from the general court to the crown. He was despised for his cowardice, duplicity, and avarice, and his letters to England show the readiness with which he distorted facts, and magnified trivial rumors into acts of treason. The house of representatives at length unanimously voted a petition to the king, humbly entreating that Sir Francis Bernard might be removed forever from the government of the province. He was recalled, and as he departed from Boston, the bells were rung, cannon fired after him from the wharves, and the liberty tree hung gayly with flags. The government, however, manifested its approbation of his course, by creating him a baronet. He was a man of erudition, had committed to memory the best passages of the best authors, and was a patron of Harvard college.

BERNARD, JACQUES, a French writer, born at Nyons, Sept. 1, 1658, died April 27, 1718. A minister of the reformed church, he fled to Holland upon the revocation of the edict of Nantes, and founded at the Hague a school for belles-lettres, philosophy, and mathematics. He continued the publication of the "Universal Library," which had been undertaken by Leclerc, and, in 1693, succeeded Bayle in editing the journal entitled the "Republic of Letters." He made a collection of the treaties of peace, truce, neutrality, suspension of arms, and alliance, and other international compacts in Europe from the time of Charlemagne.

BERNARD, JOHN, English actor, born at Portsmouth, 1756, died in London, 1830. He was an excellent light comedian, and had some

ability as a dramatic author. For many years he was joint manager of Plymouth theatre. His first appearance in London was in 1787, at Covent Garden theatre, as Archer in the "Beau's Stratagem," and was very successful. He was secretary for 9 years of the celebrated beefsteak club. In 1797 he appeared for the first time in the United States, at Birkett's circus (then fitted up as a theatre), Greenwich street, New York, as Goldfinch in the "Road to Ruin." He became one of the managers of the Boston theatre, in which capacity he continued for several years. Finally, he returned to England. His "Recollections of the Stage" (chiefly written by his son) relates his adventures up to the period (June, 1797) when he went to America. As he went on the stage in 1774, and quitted it in 1820, this period included exactly 23 years, or one-half of his theatrical career. The book, though full of anecdote, was not popular, and the second part, which was to have related Mr. Bernard's American experiences, never appeared.-WILLIAM BAYLE, son of the above, born at Boston, Mass., Jan. 1, 1808. He went to England with his father, and his first literary work of any importance, was the preparation for the press of his father's "Recollections of the Stage." Soon after this he commenced his career as a dramatic writer, and has supplied the London stage and actors with a quick succession of original plays, most of which have been as popular all over the United States as in England. Many of the pieces in which the late Tyrone Power made his most effective hits, were written by Bayle Bernard. Among his best known plays are "The Nervous Man and the Man of Nerve," "The Irish Attorney," The Mummy," "His Last Legs," "Dumb Belle," ," "A Practical Man," "The Middy Ashore," "The Boarding School," "The Round of Wrong," "A Splendid Investment," and "A Life's Trial." With the exception of Jerrold, no modern English dramatist has borrowed so little "from the French." Mr. Bernard's plots are well constructed, his leading characters distinctly individualized, and the morale of his incidents exemplary.

BERNARD, SAMUEL, a Parisian banker, born about 1651, died 1739. The son of an artist, he rose, by his financial abilities, to a position of great influence, and is said to have amassed a fortune of $6,000,000. His services were put in constant requisition by the minister of finance, Chamillard, and his successor, Desmarets, had more dealings with Bernard than with any other farmer of the public revenue in Paris. He was personally introduced to Louis XIV., and afterward to Louis XV., both monarchs deeming it prudent to treat their plebeian but powerful creditor with the utmost kindness and affability. Lending large amounts of money to poor officers and other insolvent parties, without the least prospect of return, he left the reputation of a man who made a skilful, but also a benevolent use of his means. His pecuniary ability was so great that he was supposed

to have been of Jewish origin, although he seems to have been born in the Christian faith. He was ennobled for his public services.

BERNARD, SIMON, French general of engineers, born at Dôle, April 28, 1779, died in Paris, Nov. 5, 1839, was educated by charity in his native town. He was appointed to the polytechnic school, whither he went on foot, and would have died of cold in the streets of Paris but for the care and kindness of a humble woman, who sheltered him and took him to his destination. At the school he profited greatly by the instructions of his masters, among whom were La Place, De Fleury, Fourcroy, and Monge, obtaining the second position in the class of engineering. He was appointed into the corps de génie, and first served in the army of the Rhine, in which he soon became a captain. The emperor having confided to him an important commission, he became his aidede-camp, and during the 100 days was put at the head of the topographical bureau. He came to America with La Fayette in 1824, and while in this country he was made chief engineer of the army, in which capacity he rendered great service to the country. He left here as his monuments some admirable works, among them Fort Monroe, at the mouth of James river, in Virginia. Many of the defences of New York also date from his superintendence of the engineers. After the revolution of July he returned to France, and was made aide-decamp of Louis Philippe. On Sept. 6, 1836, he became minister of war, having been previously made lieutenant-general of engineers. He remained in the ministry until the fall of the cabinet in April, 1837.

BERNARD, SIR THOMAS, an English baronet and philanthropist, born at Lincoln, April 27, 1750, died July 1, 1818. At an early age he went with his father to America, and was educated at Harvard college. He returned to England while still quite young, and was called to the bar in 1780. He married, in 1782, a lady who subsequently became sole heiress of a large property, and during the later years of his life, he devoted himself especially to philanthropic labors, and it was mainly through his exertions that, in 1796, a society for the purpose of improving the condition of the poor was founded in London. By his influence, also, a free chapel for the use of the poor was opened in the quarter of St. Giles, in that city, and the attention of the public was called to the sufferings of the laboring classes and the means of alleviating their miseries. He was also active in the efforts which led to the founding of the “Royal Institution," on the plan of the French academy, and the British institution for the purpose of collecting works of art.

BERNARD, ST., GREAT and LITTLE. See ST. BERNARD.

BERNARD LE TREVISAN, an alchemist of Padua, born in 1406, died in 1490, who flourished in society under the title of count de la Marche Trévisane, and who spent his life and

fortune in travels and investigations in search of the philosopher's stone, to the infinite satisfaction of the charlatans and adventurers who abounded in Italy in the 15th century, and who rejoiced in taking advantage of his scientific hallucination. His complete writings, in Latin and French, were published long after his death, in the 16th and 17th centuries, and, although all more or less connected with the philosopher's stone, they are not without some crude scientific theories about chemistry and heat, and were for a long time singularly popular with the adepts of alchemy.

BERNARDIN, SAINT, of Sienna, born at Massa, in Italy, Sept. 8, 1380, died at Aquila, in Abruzzo, May 20, 1444. He became a Franciscan friar, in a monastery near Sienna, in 1404, but desiring to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, was appointed a commissary of that country, and thus enabled to gratify his wish. After his return he acquired a great reputation as a preacher, and 3 cities were rival suitors for the honor of having him as a bishop. Bernardin, however, was unwilling to accept the distinction, and was made vicar-general of the friars of the Observantine order in Italy. He is said to have founded more than 300 monasteries. In 1450 he was canonized by Pope Nicholas V. His works appeared at Venice in 1591 in 4 vols. 4to. and at Paris in 1636, in 2 vols. folio. They consist of essays on religious subjects, sermons, and a commentary on the book of Revelations. BERNARDIN DE ST. PIERRE. See ST.

PIERRE.

BERNARDINES, monks or nuns of St. Bernard, a branch of the Cistercians, and hence allied to the great Benedictine order. In France the great fame of the Cistercian abbey of Clairvaux, and of its founder and first abbot, St. Bernard, led to the adoption of this name as the common designation of the whole Cistercian order. In Spain it is applied to a congregation of reformed Cistercians founded early in the 15th century by Martin Vargas, or Bargas, and approved by Pope Martin V. They had famous colleges at Salamanca, Alcala, and elsewhere. In Italy, they owe their establishment to a bull of Pope Julius II., in 1511, by which all the Cistercians of Lombardy and Tuscany were erected into a separate congregation under the name of St. Bernard. In 1497, a bull to like effect had been issued, but soon after recalled, by Alexander VI. In process of time disorders grew up in the brotherhood, and a reform was undertaken about the year 1557, by John de la Barriere, abbot of Notre Dame des Feuillants, in France. Hence arose the Feuillants, who soon spread into Italy, and were there called reformed monks of St. Bernard. The Bernardines include several other reformed congregations, among which are the Recollects, the sisters of Providence, and the sisters of the Precious Blood.

BERNARDO DEL CARPIO, a popular hero in the romantic literature of Spain. He is said to have flourished at the beginning of the 9th cen

tury, and to have been the offspring of a secret marriage between the count de Saldaña and the sister of Alfonso the Chaste. The king's wrath, on hearing of this marriage, knew no bounds. He doomed Saldaña to perpetual imprisonment and to cruel tortures, the infanta was sent to a convent, while Bernardo was educated as the son of Alfonso and kept ignorant of his birth. The brilliant exploits of Bernardo, ending with the great victory over Roland at Roncesvalles-his heroic efforts to restore liberty to his father, when he learns who his father is the treachery of Alfonso, who promises repeatedly to release the count, and as often breaks his word, with the despair of Bernardo, and his rebellion against the king and final flight to France, after Saldaña's death in prison, constitute the chief incidents in the hero's life, as represented in about 40 ballads and in the accounts in the "chronicle of Alfonso the Wise." Three plays of Lope de Vega are founded on the romantic career of Bernardo del Carpio, while the best epic on the subject, resembling Ariosto's Orlando Furioso, was published in 1624 by the poet Bernardo de Balbuena, under the title of El Bernardo.

BERNAUER, AGNES, celebrated for her romantic fate, died Oct. 12, 1435. She was the daughter of a poor citizen of Augsburg, of rare beauty and virtue, and captivated the heart of the young Albert of Bavaria, only son of the reigning duke, who met her at a tournament. She returned his love, and after a secret marriage, he conducted her to one of his castles. His enraged father, discovering this union by the son's refusal to form a more exalted matrimonial connection, caused him to be refused an entrance to the lists at a celebrated tournament at Ratisbon. The prince revenged this indignity, proclaiming Agnes duchess of Bavaria, and gave her a brilliantly appointed household; but, with a sad foreboding of her fate, she prepared a funeral chapel for herself in a neighboring convent. At the death of an uncle, who was tenderly attached to the young duke, the rage of his father broke forth, and by his orders, the beautiful young duchess, during the absence of Albert, was drowned in the Danube. The infuriated son took up arms against his father, and it was long before he could be appeased. At length he was induced to lay down arms, and to marry Ann of Brunswick, but during his lifetime he paid every honor to the memory of the unfortunate Agnes, and their loves have been the favorite subject of many Bavarian poets. Agnes has been made the theme of an opera, by Karl Krebs, which was for the first time performed at Dresden, Jan. 17, 1858.

BERNAY, a city of the French department of Eure, agreeably situated on the left bank of the Charentonne, 25 miles W. N. W. of the town of Evreux; pop. in 1856, 7,237. It is the seat of the greatest horse fair in France, attended by nearly 50,000 persons. It has cloth, woollen, linen, cotton, and paper manufactories,